Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays

ABSTRACT

A device for detecting cells and/or molecules on an electrode surface is disclosed. The device detects cells and/or molecules through measurement of impedence changes resulting from the cells and/or molecules. A disclosed embodiment of the device includes a substrate having two opposing ends along a longitudinal axis. A plurality of electrode arrays are positioned on the substrate. Each electrode array includes at least two electrodes, and each electrode is separated from at least one adjacent electrode in the electrode array by an expanse of non-conductive material. The electrode has a width at its widest point of more than about 1.5 and less than about 10 times the width of the expanse of non-conductive material. The device also includes electrically conductive traces extending substantially longitudinally to one of the two opposing ends of the substrate without intersecting another trace. Each trace is in electrical communication with at least one of the electrode arrays.

This application claims benefit of priority to U.S. provisionalapplication No. 60/397,749, filed on Jul. 20, 2002; U.S. provisionalapplication No. 60/435,400, filed on Dec. 20, 2002; and U.S. Provisionalapplication 60/469,572, filed on May 9, 2003, each of which isincorporated by reference herein, and claims benefit of priority to PCTApplication No. PCT/US03/22557; entitled “IMPEDANCE BASED DEVICES ANDMETHODS FOR USE IN ASSAYS,” filed Jul. 18, 2003, which is incorporatedby reference herein. This application also incorporates by reference PCTApplication No. PCT/US03/22537, entitled “IMPEDANCE BASED APPARATUSESAND METHODS FOR ANALYZING CELLS AND PARTICLES”, filed Jul. 18, 2003.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Technical Field

This invention relates generally to the field of sensors for use in celland molecule based assays. In particular, the invention provides sensordevices which detect a change in measured impedance between and amongelectrodes, from which the presence, behavior, quantity or change incells or molecules in a sample solution can be identified. The sensordevices can be used for monitoring cell or particle attachment, growthand migration and in identifying modulators of cell attachment, growthand migration. The sensor devices can also be used for analyzing andassaying molecules.

2. Background Art

With the advent of automated equipment for introducing compositions intowells of a microtiter plates, a number of efforts have been made todevelop plates which include all of the components necessary to analyzeplated cells or small molecules in a single step. For example, in Ehret,et al., Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 12:29-41 (1997), the authorsdescribed an electronic impedance-based device for measurement of cellsin a liquid analyte sample. The presence of targeted cells in the sameis indicated by a change in impedance between evenly sized and spacedelectrode pairs to which the cells adhere. U.S. Pat. No. 6,376,233,describe how such a device in combination with other sensors would beproduced in a microtiter plate format using semiconductor material as athe “plate” to provide the substrate for the measurement electrodes.Electrical conduits extend from electrodes in the '233 Patent device invarious planes, and in several directions, through the semiconductorsubstrate.

Others have explored in using electronic methods for analyzing andassaying biological molecules and cells. For example, U.S. Pat. No.3,890,201 describes a multichamber module-cap combination device inwhich electrically conductive strips in the bottom of the chambers areused for measuring the impedance of a sample of nutrient media in whichaerobic microorganisms are grown, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,072,578 describesa multi-chambered module attached to an electrically non-conductive basewithin which electrically conductive leads completely embedded and lyingflat, terminal portions at one end of the conductive leads emerging inpairs into the chamber in spaced relationship to each other to formelectrodes for culturing samples of microorganisms while monitoring theimpedance of the growth media.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,187,096 discloses a cell substrate electrical impedancesensor with multiple electrode arrays. Each electrode pair within theimpedance sensor for measuring the cell-substrate impedance comprisesone small electrode (a measuring electrode) and one large electrode (areference electrode) on two different layers. The difference between theelectrode sizes ensures that the measured impedance change relative tothe impedance when no cells are present on the electrodes is directlycorrelated with the cell numbers and sizes, generally 20-50 cells, oreven single cells attached to or grown on the measuring electrodes. Someapplications of the cell sensor include the monitoring of conditionswithin bioreactors, within cell cultures, the testing of compounds forcytotoxicity, research of cell biology to detect cell motility,metabolic activity, cell attachment and spreading, etc. However, thisimpedance sensor with two layered structures is somewhat complicatedwith the measuring electrodes on one layer and the reference electrodeson another layer. The selected electrode area for the small electrodeslimits the maximum of 50 cells being monitored.

The use of a large (reference) electrode and a small (measurement oractive) electrode for cell-electrode impedance measurement was reportedin many publications, including, Giaever I. and Keese C. R., “Monitoringfibroblast behavior in tissue culture with an applied electric field”,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA), 1984, vol. 81, pp 3761-3764; Giaever I.and Keese C. R., “Micromotion of mammalian cells measured electrically”,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA), 1991, vol. 88, pp 7896-7900; Tiruppathi C.et al, “Electrical method for detection of endothelial cell shape changein real time: assessment of endothelial barrier function”, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. (USA), 1992, vol. 89, pp 7919-7923; Lo C. M. et al.,“Monitoring motion of confluent cells in tissue culture”, Experimentalcell research, 1993, vol. 204, pp 102-109; Lo C. M. et al, “Impedanceanalysis of MDCK cells measured by electric cell-substrate impedancesensing”, Biophys. J., 1995, vol. 69, pp. 2800-2807; Lo C. M. et al, “pHchange in pulsed CO₂ incubators cause periodic changes in cellmorphology”, Experimental cell research, 1994, vol. 213, pp. 391-397;Mitra P. et al., “Electric measurements can be used to monitor theattachment and spreading of cells in tissue culture”, BioTechniques,1991, vol. 1, pp. 504-510; Kowolenko M. et al, “Measurement ofmacrophage adherence and spreading with weak electric fields”, J.Immunological Methods, (1990) vol. 127, pp. 71-77; Luong J. H. et al,“Monitoring motility, spreading, and mortality of adherent insect cellsusing an impedance sensor”, Anal. Chem.; 2001; vol: 73, pp1844-1848. Forexample, in the first article of cell-electrode impedance measurement(by Giaever I. and Keese C. R., “Monitoring fibroblast behavior intissue culture with an applied electric field”, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.(USA), 1984, vol. 81, pp 3761-3764), the large electrode had an area ˜2cm² and the small electrode had an area of 3×10⁻⁴ cm².

PCT application US01/46295 (WO 02/42766) and U.S. patent applicationPublication 2002/0086280 describe a similar system adapted formonitoring cell movement. At least one sensing electrode (measurementelectrode) and a counter electrode are situated in a well into which abiocompatible chemical gradient stabilizing medium is introduced andinto which migratory cells are placed. A migrating cell's arrival at thesensing electrode is detected by a change in impedance due to contactbetween the cell and a sensing electrode, which is smaller than thecounter electrode. The system can be used to determine the stimulatoryor inhibitory effect of test compounds on cell migration by comparingthe time of arrival of a migratory cell at a sensing electrode (detectedby the impedance change) in the presence of a test compound with thetime of arrival of a migratory cell at a sensing electrode in theabsence of a test compound.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,981,268 and 6,051,422 disclose a similar hybrid sensorfor measurement of single cells. In this case, an array of measuringelectrodes shares a common reference electrode. In order to measuresingle cell responses, the diameter of measuring electrode is smallerthan that of a cell. The sensors can be applied to detect and monitorchanges in cells as a result of cell responses to environmental andchemical challenges. However, this impedance sensor can monitorresponses of only single cells. Furthermore, the sensitivity of suchdevices critically depends on the cell location relative to theelectrodes.

U.S. patent applications 2002/0150886 and 2002/0076690 disclose the useof antibodies immobilized on interdigitated electrodes for the detectionof pathogens. The interdigitated electrodes are incorporated onto asurface of a fluidic channel through which a fluid sample is passed, andbinding of a pathogen to the antibody-coated electrodes can be detectedby an increase in impedance between spaced electrodes.

The use of interdigitated electrodes fabricated on silicon or sapphireor glass substrates as impedance sensors to monitor cell attachment isdescribed in papers by Ehret et al. (Biosensors and Bioelectronics 12:29-41 (1996); Med. Biol. Eng. Computer. 36: 365-370 (1998)), Wolf et al.(Biosensors and Bioelectronics 13: 501-509 (1998)), and Henning et al.Anticancer Drugs 12: 21-32 (2001)). These methods use expensivesubstrates such as silicon and sapphire and, due to the electrodeconfigurations (both electrode widths and gaps are about 50 microns),have a less than optimal efficiency, as only an average of about 50% ofthe cells are able to contribute to the impedance signal.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,280,586 discloses a device for measuring the presence ofa component of an analyte having at least one reference sensor and atleast one electrical sensor each having a measurement output connectableto an evaluation device. The reference sensor interdigitated capacitorand a reference electrode each having an electrical measurementstructure are located on a common substrate. The measurement structureof the electrical sensor is connected to at least one function-specificplant or animal receptor cell serving as a biological sensor, whereineach electrical sensor measures the analyte under investigation bymeasuring a morphologic or physiologic property of the receptor cells. Astructured, biocompatible micro porous interlayer is provided betweenthe receptor cell and the measurement structure. The receptor is atleast partially adhered to the microporous interlayer. The measurementstructure of the reference sensor is free of connections of functionspecific receptor cells. The change of the measured property isindicative of the presence of the compound in the analyte.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,810,725 discloses a planar electrode array forstimulation and recording of nerve cells and the individual electrodeimpedance is in a range between 1 ohm and 100 k-ohm at a frequency of 1kHz with an electrolytic solution comprising 1.4% NaCl. U.S. Pat. No.6,132,683 discloses an electrode array comprising a plurality ofmeasuring electrodes and reference electrodes for monitoring andmeasuring electrical potential in a neural cell sample, wherein theimpedance of the reference electrode is smaller than that of measuringelectrodes. However, these electrodes are not optimized for aquantitative measurement of impedance at the interface between a celland a microelectrode.

In another type of application, direct current (DC) electrical field isused to electronically size particles, in particular, biological cellsby using the well-known “coulter” counting principle. In this case, a DCcurrent is applied to a micron or multiple-micro-size aperture.Electrical voltage change is monitored when a cell or other particle isforced through the aperture. Despite its success of the coulterprinciple, the device is limited in its sensitivity as well as itsdynamic range in counting and sizing biological cells. See U.S. Pat.Nos. 2,656,508 and 3,259,842, and Larsen et al., “Somatic Cell Countingwith Silicon Apertures”, Micro Tatal Analysis Systems, 2000, 103-106,edited by A. Van den Berg et al., 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers:

U.S. Pat. No. 6,169,394 discloses a micro-electric detector havingconductivity or impedance based measurements of a test sample placed ina microchannel. The detector includes a pair of electrodes disposed onopposing sidewalls of the microchannel to create a detection zone in themicrochannel between and adjacent to the electrodes. Similarly, Song atal. demonstrated use of such microelectrodes for detecting cellular DNAcontent by measuring capacitance change when a cell is caused to pass bytwo opposing electrodes disposed on the two side walls of a microfluidicchannel. See Song at al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97(20):10687-90(2000).

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,643,742, 6,235,520 and 6,472,144 disclose systems forelectrically monitoring and recording cell cultures, and for highthroughput screening. The systems comprise multiple wells into each ofwhich cells are introduced and into each of which a pair of electrodesare placed. The systems can measure the electrical conductance withineach well by applying a low-voltage, AC signal across a pair ofelectrodes placed in the well and measuring the conductance across theelectrodes, to monitor the level of growth or metabolic activity ofcells contained in each well.

Others have taken different approaches to the use of impedancemeasurements to assay molecules in a sample. For example, Ong, et al.,Sensors, 2:219-232 (2000), uses impedence changes in a circuit to detectthe presence of bacteria in food. In German published application DE 3915 290 and PCT Application WO 96/01836 devices are disclosed as havingelectrodes disposed on a substrate for use in detection of smallmolecules, especially polynucleotides. However, these devices arelimited to use in specific applications, and are not intended forgeneral laboratory research.

Other bioelectrical sensors rely on changes in capacitance or othersignals as indicia of assay results. For example, U.S. Pat. No.6,232,062 discloses a method for detecting the presence of a targetsequence in a nucleic acid sample. The method comprises applying a firstinput signal comprising an AC component and a non-zero DC component to ahybridization complex, said hybridization complex comprising at least atarget sequence and a first probe single stranded nucleic acid, saidhybridization complex being covalently attached to a first electrontransfer moiety comprising an electrode and a second electron transfermoiety, and detecting the presence of said target sequence by detectingthe presence of said hybridization complex. Examples of the secondelectron transfer moieties include transition metal complexes, organicelectron transfer moieties, metallocenes.

In another example, Patolsky et al, Nature Biotechnology, 19, 253-257,(2001), described a method for detection of single base mutation in DNA.With electrochemical redox labels, they measured Faradic impedancespectra for an electrode on which a primer thiolated oligonucleotide wasassembled and hybridization of target DNA molecules occurred. Thetechnique achieved a sensitivity of 10⁻¹⁴ mol/ml for sample DNA tested.

Bioelectrical sensors have also been adapted to use in detection of cellmigration. For example, in the device of Cramer (U.S. Pat. No.4,686,190), the passage of cells through a membrane can be detected by asensor. However, the usefulness of the Cramer device is limited byseveral design limitations including, in one embodiment, the concealmentof the active surface of the sensor by the membrane.

This invention aims to expand the usage and application of electricalfield impedance measurement and other electronic methods for measuringand analyzing cells and molecules, non-cell particles, and biological,physiological, and pathological conditions of cells, and providesdevices, apparatuses and systems for these analyses.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention is directed to a device forassaying target small molecules, such as polynucleotides andpolypeptides. The device includes a nonconductive substrate, onto whicha plurality of sensors, each including an arrangement of electrodes, aredisposed. The exposed surface of the electrodes includes capturemolecules, to which cells may adhere and/or small molecules may bind.

Such adherence or binding causes a change in the impedance betweenelectrodes, which change produces a signal indicative of the adherenceon, or binding to, the electrodes. Further changes in impedance aremeasurably caused in response to changes in the population of adheredcells or bound molecules, such as cell growth or a change in thecomposition of the bound molecule (e.g., through hybridization).

Toward measurement of the impedance changes associated with theseevents, methods are provided for the use of the device. One embodimentof the device utilizes a microtiter plate-like design which isespecially well adapted to use with automated assaying equipment. Thedevice according to this embodiment of the invention takes the form of anonconductive substrate plate, onto which one or more containers toserve as cell or small molecule sample receptacles are placed,preferably in perpendicular relationship to the substrate. Electricalconduits are provided within one or more planes of the substrate, toconnect its active sensors to an impedance signal processor. Theconduits are configured to minimize background noise and the potentialfor conduit-to-conduit interference.

In one aspect, the invention includes a device for detecting cellsand/or molecules on an electrode surface through measurement ofimpedence changes resulting from the cells and/or molecules. The deviceincludes a substrate having two opposing ends along a longitudinal axisand a plurality of electrode arrays positioned on the substrate. Eachelectrode array includes at least two electrodes, and each electrode isseparated from at least one adjacent electrode in the electrode array byan expanse of non-conductive material. The electrode has a width at itswidest point of more than about 1.5 and less than about 10 times thewidth of the expanse of non-conductive material. The device alsoincludes electrically conductive traces extending substantiallylongitudinally to one of the two opposing ends of the substrate withoutintersecting another trace. Each trace is in electrical communicationwith at least one of the electrode arrays.

The “longitudinal axis” refers generally to an axis along a surface ofthe substrate. For example, the longitudinal axis may be parallel to thecenterline of one of the two longest dimensions of the substrate (e.g.,the length of the width). Similarly, “substantially longitudinally”refers to the general direction along the longitudinal axis.

The substrate may include glass, sapphire, silicon dioxide on silicon,or a polymer. The substrate may be configured as a plate. In a preferredembodiment, the device includes a plurality of receptacles. Eachreceptacle is disposed on the nonconductive substrate in a perpendicularorientation thereto, and each receptacle forms a fluid-tight containerassociated with at least one electrode array on the substrate.

Up to half of the electrical traces may extend to one end of thesubstrate, while up to half of the electrical traces extend to the otherend of the substrate.

The device may also include electrical traces between adjacent pairs ofelectrode arrays.

The electrodes of each electrode array may be of equal widths. In apreferred embodiment, the electrodes each have a width of 80 microns attheir widest point. In a further preferred embodiment, the gap betweenadjacent electrodes at their widest point is 20 microns.

Each electrode array may include a plurality of evenly spaced electrodepairs. Each plurality of electrodes may be organized in aninterdigitated fashion. In one embodiment, at least one bus encircles upto half of the plurality of interdigitated electrodes in each electrodearray.

Alternatively, each plurality of electrodes-may be organized in aconcentric, sinusoidal or castellated fashion. In one embodiment, atleast one bus encircles up to half of the plurality of concentricallyorganized electrodes in each electrode array.

The bus disposed nearest to the plurality of electrodes may be separatedfrom the plurality by an expanse of nonconductive substrate. The busesmay include a pair of electrodes, each of which extends around half thediameter of the electrode array. In one embodiment, the device alsoincludes a plurality of receptacles, wherein each receptacle is disposedon the nonconductive substrate in a perpendicular orientation thereto,wherein further each receptacle forms a fluid-tight containersurrounding the buses. In one embodiment, the containers are arranged onthe substrate in honeycomb fashion.

In a preferred embodiment, the device includes an impedance analyzerelectrically connected to all or a plurality of the electricallyconductive traces at their termini on at least one end of the substrate.The impedance may be measured at a frequency ranging from about 1 Hz toabout 1 MHz.

In a preferred embodiment, the device includes one or more capturereagents immobilized on the surfaces of at least two electrodes in eachelectrode array. The capture reagents are capable of binding targetcells and/or molecules.

In one embodiment, the device includes connection means for establishingelectrical communication between the electrically conductive traces andan impedance analyzer. In a preferred embodiment, the connection meansinclude a mechanical clip adapted to securely engage the substrate andto form electrical contact with a trace.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a schematic representation of a device 100 with two electrodestructures of same or similar areas deposited on a substrate. Firstelectrode structure has electrode elements 100 a, 110 b, 110 c andsecond electrode structure has electrode elements 120 a, 120 b, 120 cand 120 d. Electrode elements within an electrode structure areconnected to each other by arc-shaped connection electrode bus 125. Likethe electrode elements, such connection-buses (125) are also made ofelectrically-conductive material (e.g. gold film, platinum film, goldfilm over a chromium or titanium film). These electrically-conductiveconnection-paths or connection buses (125) may have an insulatingcoating. Electrode elements 110 a-110 c and 120 a-120 d compriseelectrode lines with connected circles added on the line. The overallarea of electrode elements and gaps between electrode elements maycorrespond to, or may be slightly larger than, or may be slightlysmaller than, the bottom of a well (e.g., a cylinder shaped well, aconical shaped well, or a cubic shaped well), for example, a 24well-plate, a 96-well plate, or 384 well plate that are commonly used.The whole surfaces of the wells may be covered with electrodes to ensurethat the molecular interactions occurring on the bottom surface of thewell can contribute to the impedance change. This arrangement has anadvantage that non-uniform molecular interaction occurring on the bottomsurface of these wells would result in only a small variation in theimpedance measured between electrode structure 110 and 120. 150 areconnection pads that can be connected to an external impedancemeasurement circuit. 130 is the electrical connection traces thatconnects the connection pad to the electrode structures 110 and 120.Such connection traces can extend in any direction in the plane of theelectrodes. FIG. 1B is a schematic representation of an device 200 withtwo electrode structures of similar areas deposited on a substrate.Electrode structures 210 and 220 comprise multiple interconnectedelectrode elements. Electrode elements (210 a-210 c, 220 a-220 d) arerectangular lines and together form an interdigitated electrodestructure unit. Similar to FIG. 1A, the electrode elements (210 a-210 c,220 a-220 d) within each electrode structure are connected througharc-shaped, electrically conductive paths or electrode buses (225).Connection pads 250 are connected to electrode structures through theelectrical connection traces 230. FIG. 1C is a schematic representationof a device 300 with two electrode structures of similar areas depositedon a substrate. Electrode structures 310 and 320 comprise multipleinterconnected electrode elements (310 a-310 f, 320 a-320 f). Electrodeelements (310 a-310 c, 320 a-320 d) are rectangular lines and togetherform an interdigitated electrode structure unit. Different from FIG. 1Aand FIG. 1B, the electrode structures having electrode elements 310a-310 c and 320 a-320 c are connected to connection pads 350.

FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of a system for monitoring theimpedance change as a result of the target molecules being captured toor bound to the electrode surfaces. The “Y” symbols in the Figurerepresent the capture molecules on the electrode surfaces. The “Δ”symbols represent the target molecules that can bind to the capturemolecules. The left panel shows the background impedance (Z₀) of theelectrodes prior to the binding of target molecules. The right panelshows the measured impedance (Z_(molecule-binding)) of the electrodesafter the binding of target molecules to the capture molecules. Theimpedance is monitored by an impedance analyzer or impedance measuringcircuits. Impedance analyzers are well known to those skilled in theart.

FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a molecular assay, 96-well,electrode plate with detection microelectrode arrays fabricated orincorporated into a substrate that corresponds to bottom surface of thewells. For simplicity, the structures defining the walls of the wellsare not shown. The electrode lines 450 on the left of the FIG. 3 areconnection pads for the microelectrode array to connect to externalimpedance measurement circuits. There are two electrode structuresforming an electrode structure unit for each well (or for at least someof the wells) and thus two connection pads are used for a well thatcomprises an electrode structure unit used in the device. Forillustrative purposes, the electrical connections are shown for onlyelectrode structures from two up-left wells 460 and 470. One approach toform such a 96-well, electrode plate is to attach the substratecomprising electrode structures to a plate comprising an arrangement oftubes, such as a bottomless microwell plate (e.g. a microtiter plate),so that the substrate forms the bottoms of wells or fluid containersthat can be used to monitor molecular interactions.

FIG. 4A is a schematic representation of an device for measuring themolecule-binding impedance between one single electrode and itsneighboring electrodes. In the figure, the disc-shaped electrode 410 hassix neighboring disc-shaped electrodes 520. The impedance between thedisc-shaped electrode 410 and all electrodes 420 (that are connectedtogether outside the device) is measured. FIG. 4B is a schematicrepresentation of a device with multiple disc-type shaped electrodes.

FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of a device with two electrodes ofdifferent areas 510 and 520.

FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of a molecular assay plate withnine electrode structure units each having two electrodes. An impedancemeasurement analyzer is switched for the impedance measurement among thenine units.

FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of electrode geometries-that can beused in the present invention for assaying-or analyzing molecules. 7(A),interdigitated, parallel line electrode array, where the electrode widthcan be larger, equal to, or smaller than the electrode gaps; 7(B)castellated, offset electrode structures; 7(C) electrode structures withdisc electrodes added on the electrode lines; 7(D) castellated, straightelectrode structures; 7(E) sinusoidal electrode structures; 7(F)concentric electrode structures. The characteristic dimension of theelectrodes can be as small as less than 10 microns, or as large as overseveral hundred microns. The total active electrode area can be ofdifferent shapes such as regular shapes like rectangular shapes (FIGS.7(A), 7(B), 7(E)), or circle-like shapes (FIGS. 7(C), 7(D)), or otherregular or irregular shapes. Preferably, the total electrode-region area(the area including the electrodes and the gaps between the electrodes)covers nearly the complete bottom surface of the top chamber. Electrodestructures are connected to impedance measurement circuits (e.g. animpedance analyzer) via connection pads (as illustrated in FIGS. 7(A)and 7(B)) that are either directly linked to electrode elements (FIG.7(A), FIG. 7(C) and FIG. 7(E)) or connected to electrode elementsthrough additional electrical connection (FIG. 7(B) and FIG. 7(D)). InFIGS. 7(A), (C) and (E), connection pads are also theelectrically-conducting connection traces that connect electrodeelements within an electrode structure.

FIG. 8 shows a schematic representation of signal amplification inmolecular detection by measuring the catalytic products of anenzyme-mediated reaction involving targeted small molecules. Asdepicted, measured changes in impedance indicate the presence of acatalytic product from the enzyme-mediated reactions on the sensorsurface. In one exemplary approach, the enzyme-mediated reactions occuron the surfaces of electrodes, catalytic products are precipitants fromthe solution onto electrode surfaces. The electronic impedances aremeasured to monitor the presence and quantity of the catalytic productson the electrodes.

FIG. 9 illustrates the dynamic monitoring of catalytic productprecipitation on a device of the invention. The device includes a glasssubstrate (1 cm squared) on which a microelectrode structure unit wasfabricated. Gold (˜0.2 micron) over Cr (˜0.03 micron) film was depositedon the glass substrate. The microelectrode structure unit having acircle-on-a-line electrode geometry was patterned and fabricated. To usethe device, a hollow plastic well having a cylinder shape was bonded tothe microelectrode device so that the electrode structure unit wasexposed to experiment liquid sample when the sample was added to theplastic well. The surface of the microelectrode was pre-coated withbiotinylated bovine serum albumen (BSA) followed by blocking with 3% drymilk at room temperature for 30 min. After brief washing with phosphatebuffered saline (PBS), streptavidin alkaline phosphatase (AP, 10 ng/ml)was added and incubate at room temperature for 30 min followed byextensive wash with PBS. Alkaline phosphatase substrate BCIP/NBT (fromSigma, BCIP: 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoyl phosphate; NBT: nitrobluetetrazolium) was added to the solution and the resistance between theelectrode structures in the plastic well was measured using an electricimpedance analyzer. The AP-mediated reactions (AP's substrate BCIP/NBTwere converted into-precipitants) results in precipitation (see FIG. 8)on the surfaces of electrode structure units. The precipitation causedan increase in the resistance between the electrode structure units.With time, more precipitation occurs on the electrode surfaces andhigher resistance was measured. The time-dependent AP activity on theelectrode surface was monitored by measuring the time-dependentresistance between the electrode structure units (see FIG. 9).

FIG. 10 shows a quantitative detection of fibronectin on a device of theinvention by impedance analysis. The device was similar to the one usedin FIG. 9. Briefly, the device is a glass substrate (1 cm squared) onwhich a microelectrode structure unit was fabricated. Gold (˜0.2 micron)over Cr (˜0.03 micron) film was deposited on the glass substrate. Themicroelectrode structure unit having a circle-on-a-line electrodegeometry was patterned and fabricated. To use the device, a hollowplastic well having a cylinder shape was bonded to the microelectrodedevice so that the electrode structure unit was exposed to experimentliquid sample when the sample was added to the plastic well. Differentamount of fibronectin (5 ng, 500 pg and 50 pg) was added into plasticwells and then incubate at room temperature for 2 hours. This incubationstep resulted in the coating of the device surface with fibronectinmolecules. The surface of the device was blocked with 3% dry milk atroom temperature for 1 hour. After brief wash with PBS, mouseanti-fibronectin (1:200 in dilution) was added to the device andincubate at 4° C. overnight. This overnight incubation resulted in thebinding of the mouse anti-fibronectin molecules to fibronectins on thedevice surface. After washing, alkaline phosphatase(AP)-labeled goatanti-mouse IgG was added and incubate at room temperature for 1 hourfollowed by extensive washing. This 1 hour incubation resulted in theAP-labeled goat anti-mouse IgG bound to the mouse anti-fibronectin onthe device surface. Alkaline phosphatase substrate BCIP/NBT (from Sigma,BCIP: 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoyl phosphate; NBT: nitroblue tetrazolium )was added and the resistance between the electrode structures in theplastic well was measured using an electric impedance analyzer. TheAP-mediated reactions (AP's substrate BCIP/NBT were converted intoprecipitants) results in precipitation (see FIG. 8) on the surfaces ofelectrode structure units. The precipitation caused an increase in theresistance between the electrode structure units. With time, moreprecipitation occurs on the electrode surfaces and higher resistance wasmeasured. The figure shown the resistance changes at 30 min after addingthe substrate BCIP/NBT. The device can detect as little as 50 pg offibronectin coated onto the surface of the device as indicated in thefigure.

FIG. 11 illustrates a microelectrode strip (or electrode strip) formolecular detection. The microelectrode strip contains microelectrodestructure units fabricated on a substrate strip. Non-limiting examplesof the substrate materials include glass, plastic sheets or membrane,ceramics, polymer membranes, insulator-on-semiconductor (e.g.,silicone-dioxide on silicone), fiber glass (like those for printedcircuit board) or other insulating materials. A variety ofmicrofabrication or micromachining methods can be used to fabricate orproduce the microelectrode structure units on the substrate. On thesurface of the microelectrode array, specific molecules are anchored orbound to or absorbed. The anchored molecule can be nucleic acid,peptides, protein and other molecules such as chemical compounds. Themolecules can be anchored, bound, or absorbed onto the surface viadifferent physical or chemical methods. Non-limiting examples ofphysical methods for coating may include passive absorption, spinningcoating of molecule solution followed by drying, spotting of moleculesolutions on designated electrode structure units. Non-limiting examplesof chemical methods for surface modification may include molecular selfassembly, chemical reactions on the surface. These physical or chemicalmethods are used to modify the electrode surfaces with anchoringchemical molecules. A single strip may have multiple electrode structureunits. The surface of different electrode structure units may bemodified or coated with different anchoring molecules so that eachmicroelectrode structure unit is surface-modified with a unique type ofmolecules. The anchored, bound or absorbed or otherwise depositedmolecules on the surface of microelectrode structure units serve ascapturing molecules. Target molecules in a sample solution can bind to,or react with such capturing molecules. Upon binding of target moleculesonto the capturing molecules, electric impedance between microelectrodestructures within an electrode structure unit will be changed and suchchanges are measured or monitored by an impedance analyzer or impedancemeasuring circuits. In some cases, the target molecules are labeled withenzymes (for example, alkaline phosphatase, AP in FIG. 11). The labelenzymes are then used for a catalytic reaction to convert enzymesubstrates (for example, BCIP in FIG. 11) into products. The productsare then be monitored by electric impedances between microelectrodestructures. For example, the products may be insoluble and canprecipitate onto the surface of the microelectrode structures. In othercases, the target molecules are labeled with certain “labeling”molecules. These labeling molecules may involve specific chemicalreactions, which would result in products that can be monitored ormeasured by impedance detection across electrode structures. Forexample, the products may be insoluble and may precipitate onto thesurfaces of electrode structures. The detection or measured of suchproducts by electric impedance measurement can provide qualitative andquantitative information about target molecules in the sample solution.

FIG. 12(A) shows a device having 15× electrode-structure units that werearranged in a 2-row by 8-column configuration on a substrate. Thedetails of the electrode structures were not shown except for the twoelectrical connections (electrode traces) per electrode structure unitfor connecting the electrode structures to connection pads located onthe two ends of the substrate. One of the wells is a “null” well; thatis, there is no active sensor associated with that well. The null wellis utilized as a control well. Electrode structures may have variousgeometries such as those shown in FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C, 5, 6, 7A-7F.

FIG. 12(B) shows a device having 16× electrode structure-units that werearranged on a substrate. The details of the electrode structures werenot shown except for the two electrical connections (electrode traces)per electrode structure unit for connecting the electrode structures toconnection pads located on the two ends of the substrate. Electrodestructures may have various geometries such as those shown in FIGS. 1A,1B, 1C, 5, 6, 7A-7F.

FIG. 12(C) shows a device having 16× electrode structure-units that werearranged on a substrate. Each electrode structure unit has aninterdigitated electrode array.

FIG. 13(A) shows a small PCB board that can be used for connecting tothe connection pads on the edges of the substrate having 16×electrode-structure units shown on FIG. 12(A). The PCB board has 16rectangular conductor lines that were arranged according to the spacingbetween the connections pads shown on FIG. 12(A).

FIG. 13(B) shows the assembly with two PCB boards bonded to thesubstrate having 16× electrode structure units.

FIG. 13(C) shows the assembly with two PCB boards bonded to thesubstrate having 6× electrode structure units, with needle shapedPOGO-pin connection from underneath to connect to the conductor lines.

FIG. 14(A) shows a flex circuit that can be used for connecting to theedges of the sensor plates. The flex circuit has multiple,rectangular-shaped, electrical conductors on both sides where theelectrically conductors on one side can be bonded to the connection padson a device shown in FIG. 12(A) whilst the electrical conductors can beconnected to an impedance measurement circuits. The correspondingelectrical conductors on both sides of the flex circuit are connected.

FIG. 14(B) shows assembly of the flex circuit bonded to a device asshown in FIG. 12(A). The electrical conductors on one side of the flexcircuit are bonded to the connection pads of the device.

FIG. 14 (C) shows the assembly with two flex circuits bonded to thesubstrate having 6× electrode structure units, with needle shapedPOGO-pin connection from underneath to connect to the conductor lines.

FIG. 14(D) shows one type of metal clip that is made of metal wires andcan be used to connecting to connection pads on one side of substrate tothe other side of the substrate.

FIG. 14(E) shows that a crossectional view of metal clips connected tothe connection pads along edges of the substrate to the other side ofthe substrate (i.e., the bottom side of the substrate here). Thesubstrate comprises electrode structures on the same side of thesubstrate as the connection pads are located on. Needle shaped POGO-pinconnection structures that are electrically connected to an impedanceanalyzer (directly or through electronic switches) can then be used toconnect to the metal clips on the bottom side so that the impedanceanalyzer is connected to the electrode structures on the substrate.

FIG. 14(F) shows another type of metal clip that is made of metal wiresand can be used to connecting to connection pads on one side ofsubstrate to the other side of the substrate. The extra-bend for thistype of metal clips allows them to be connected to (for example, bysoldering) to connection pads on a printed circuit board.

FIG. 14(G) shows that a crossectional view of metal clips connected tothe connection pads along edges of the substrate to the other side ofthe substrate (i.e., the bottom side of the substrate here). The metalclips are then connected a printed circuit board to which an impedanceanalyzer can be connected to directly or indirectly (for example, viaelectronic switches).

FIG. 15(A) shows a bottom view of a 96-well plate with six deviceassembled on the bottom. Each device has 16× electrode-structure unitswith connection pads located on the edges-of the device.

FIG. 15(B) shows a bottom view of a 96-well plate with six deviceassembled on the bottom. Each of the middle four devicees has 16×electrode-structure units with connection pads located on the edges ofthe device. The two side devicees have 14× electrode-structure unitswith connection pads also located on the edges of the device.

FIG. 16 shows a POGO-pin holder structure that can hold multiplePOGO-pins. This structure can be used with the 96-well platesillustrated in FIGS. 15A and 15B.

FIG. 17 shows a multi-layered electrode structure.

FIG. 18 shows an electrode strip based device for molecular assays.

FIG. 19 illustrates operational principles of the monitoring ofmolecular reaction of bindings based on impedance measurement.

FIGS. 19(A, C, E and G) are cross-sectional drawing of a device of thepresent invention showing two electrodes. Capturing molecules, depictedwith “Y” symbols, are anchored, placed, introduced, or bound to surfaceof the electrodes. Capturing molecules may be any molecules that mayinteract with target molecules to be measured or monitored in a samplesolution. Capturing molecules may be antibodies, peptides, ligands,receptors, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, oligonucletides, or anymolecules that can interact with or bind to target molecules.Illustrated in FIGS. 19(A, C, E and G) is a measurement of backgroundimpedance Z₀ as measured for the electrodes coated with or covered withor modified with capturing molecules.

FIG. 19(B) is Cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “⋄” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Capturing molecules and target molecules form a molecularinteraction or molecular binding pairs so that target molecules can bindto the capturing molecules. Target molecules may be any molecules thatmay interact with capturing molecules. Target molecules in a samplesolution or suspected to be in a sample solution are molecules ofinterest to be measured or monitored. Like capturing molecules, targetmolecules may be antibodies, antigens, peptides, ligands, receptors,proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, oligonucletides, or any moleculesthat can interact with or bind to capturing molecules. Illustrated in(B) is a measurement of impedance Z_(M) as measured for the electrodesmodified with capturing molecules to which target molecules bind. Thefigures in (A) and (B) are a pair and show that the impedance betweenelectrodes will be changed from Z₀ to Z_(M), corresponding to acondition that electrodes are modified with capturing molecules (A) andto a condition that target molecules bind to the capturing molecules(B).

FIG. 19(D) is a cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “⋄” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Different from FIG. 19(B), target molecules here are labeledwith labeling molecules or labeling particles, depicted with “∘”symbols. Capturing molecules and target molecules form a molecularinteraction or molecular binding pairs so that target molecules can bindto the capturing molecules. Labeling molecules or particles are themolecules or particles that would increase the impedance change of(Z_(ML)-Z₀), in another word, to amplify the detection signal. Targetmolecules may be any molecules that may interact with capturingmolecules. Target molecules in a sample solution or suspected to be in asample solution are molecules of interest to be measured or monitored.Like capturing molecules, target molecules may be antibodies, antigens,peptides, ligands, receptors, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides,oligonucletides, or any molecules that can interact with or bind tocapturing molecules. Illustrated in (D) is a measurement of impedanceZ_(ML) as measured for the electrodes modified with capturing moleculesto which target molecules bind, wherein target molecules are labeledwith labeling molecules or particles. The figures in (C) and (D) are apair and show that the impedance between electrodes will be changed fromZ₀ to Z_(ML), corresponding to a condition that electrodes are modifiedwith capturing molecules (C) and to a condition that target moleculesbind to the capturing molecules (D). Labeling molecules or particles inFIG. 19(D) are used to amplify or further increase the impedance changeof (Z_(ML)-Z₀). One non-limiting example of the labeling molecules maybe certain large organic molecules whose presence on the electrode willaffect the passage of the ions or electrons at the electrode surfacesand will result in a large change in impedance as measured betweenelectrodes. One example of labeling particles may be nano-sized ormicrosized, electrically non-conducing, or semi-conducting, or evenconducing particles. Another example of labeling particles maynano-sized or micro-sized liposomes into whose surfaces signalamplifying molecules are incorporated. The presence of such labelingparticles will affect the passage of the ions or electrons at theelectrode surfaces and will result in a large change in impedance asmeasured between electrodes.

FIG. 19(F) is a cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “♦” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Different from FIG. 19(B), target molecules here are labeledwith labeling molecules or labeling particles, depicted with “●”symbols. Capturing molecules and target molecules form a molecularinteraction or molecular binding pairs so that target-molecules can bindto the capturing molecules. Labeling molecules or particles are themolecules or particles that would increase the impedance change of(Z_(MP)-Z₀), in another word, to amplify detection signal. In this case,the signal amplification of the labeling molecules or particles isachieved through certain reaction between labeling molecules orparticles with some reaction (R) molecules in solution. The reactionproduct (P) is deposited or precipitated on the electrode surfaces,resulting the impedance Z_(MP) electrodes. Target molecules may be anymolecules that may interact with capturing molecules. Target moleculesin a sample solution or suspected to be in a sample solution aremolecules of interest to be measured or monitored. Like capturingmolecules, target molecules may be antibodies, antigens, peptides,ligands, receptors, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides,oligonucletides, or any molecules that can interact with or bind tocapturing molecules. Illustrated in (F) is a measurement of impedanceZ_(MP) as measured for the electrodes modified with capturing moleculesto which target molecules bind, wherein target molecules are labeledwith labeling molecules or particles. The figures in (E) and (F) are apair and show that the impedance between electrodes will be changed fromZ₀ to Z_(MP), corresponding to a condition that electrodes are modifiedwith capturing molecules (E) and to a condition that target moleculesbind to the capturing molecules (F). Labeling molecules or particles inFIG. 19(F) are used to amplify or further increase the impedance changeof (Z_(MP)-Z₀). The signal amplification of the labeling molecules orparticles in FIG. 19(F) is achieved through certain reaction betweenlabeling molecules or particles with some reaction (R) molecules insolution. The reaction product (P) is deposited or precipitated on theelectrode surfaces and will affect the passage of electrons and/or ionsat the electrode surfaces, leading to a large impedance change. Thecondition show in FIG. 19(F) can be regarded as a particular example ofFIG. 19(D).

FIG. 19(H) is a cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “⋄” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Different from FIG. 19(B), target molecules here are labeledwith labeling molecules, depicted with “∘” symbols. Capturing moleculesand target molecules form a molecular interaction or molecular bindingpairs so that target molecules can bind to the capturing molecules.Labeling molecules are the molecules that would increase the impedancechange of (Z_(MEP)-Z₀), in another word, to amplify detection signal. Inthis case, the labeling molecules are enzymes and signal amplificationof the labeling molecules is achieved through enzyme-mediated orcatalyzed reactions of substrate molecules (S) in a solution. Theproduct (P) of the enzyme-mediated reaction is deposited or precipitatedon the electrode surfaces, resulting impedance (Z_(MEP)) of theelectrodes is measured. Target molecules may be any molecules that mayinteract with capturing molecules. Target molecules in a sample solutionor suspected to be in a sample solution are molecules of interest to bemeasured or monitored. Like capturing molecules, target molecules may beantibodies, antigens, peptides, ligands, receptors, proteins, nucleicacids, nucleotides, oligonucletides, or any molecules that can interactwith or bind to capturing molecules. Illustrated in (H) is a measurementof impedance Z_(MEP) as measured for the electrodes modified withcapturing molecules to which target molecules bind, wherein targetmolecules are labeled with labeling molecules or particles. The figuresin (G) and (H) are a pair and show that the impedance between electrodeswill be changed from Z₀ to Z_(MEP), corresponding to a condition thatelectrodes are modified with capturing molecules (G) and to a conditionthat target molecules bind to the capturing molecules (H). Labelingmolecules in FIG. 19(G) are used to amplify or further increase theimpedance change of (Z_(MEP)-Z₀). In this case, the labeling moleculesare enzymes and signal amplification of the labeling molecules isachieved through enzyme-mediated or catalyzed reactions of substratemolecules (S) in a solution. The product (P) of the enzyme-mediatedreaction is deposited or precipitated on the electrode surfaces,resulting impedance (Z_(MEP)) of the electrodes is measured. Thereaction product (P) is deposited or precipitated on the electrodesurfaces and will affect the passage of electrons and/or ions at theelectrode surfaces, leading to a large impedance change. The conditionshow in FIG. 19(H) can be regarded as a particular example of FIG.19(F). Some examples of such enzyme-based signal amplification aredescribed in FIG. 8.

FIG. 20(A) shows typical frequency spectra of measured resistance forcircle-on-line electrode structures (line width=30 micron, line gap=80micron, circle diameter=90 micron) fabricated on glass substrates undervarious conditions. The glass substrates containing electrode structuresare electrode devices. Plastic wells were assembled over electrodestructures to form a test device. The surface of the electrodestructures was immobilized with alkaline phosphate molecules by firstcoating the electrodes with biotin-labeled bovine serum albumin andfollowed by incubating the electrodes in streptavidin modified alkalinephosphate to allow streptavidin-modified alkaline phosphate (AP) to bindto biotin on the electrode surfaces. After streptavidin-modified AP wascoated onto the electrode surfaces, the well was washed extensively withTris buffer (pH=7.6). Tris solution containing BCIP (17 ul BCIP stock in1.5 ml Tris, BCIP stock was prepared in DMSO having a 25 mg/mlconcentration) and NBT (33 ul in 1.5 ml Tris, NBT stock was prepared inde-ionized water having a 25 mg/ml concentration) was then added intothe well. Impedance measurement was performed immediately after and atdifferent time points after addition of the solution. (a) symbol ⋄,immediately after addition of the solution, (b) symbols of X, □, ▴ for13 (X), 28 (□)and 80 (▴) minutes after the solution was added.

FIG. 20(B) shows a frequency spectrum of measured reactance for the sameelectrode structures under the same conditions as in FIG. 20(A): (a)symbol ⋄, immediately after addition of the solution, (b) symbols of X,□, ▴ for 13 (X), 28 (□)and 80 (▴) minutes after the solution was added.Note that the reactance shown in FIG. 20(B) is the absolute value of thereactance, in another word, the magnitude of the reactance. For themeasurement taken immediately after the addition of the solution, thereactance was capacitive in nature between 10 Hz and 500 kHz andinductive in nature between 792 kHz and 5 MHz. For other measurements,the reactance was capacitive in nature between 10 Hz and 3.155 MHz andinductive in nature at 5 MHz.

FIG. 20(C) the ratio of the resistance measured at different time pointsafter the solution was added into the well to the resistance measuredimmediately after the solution was added into the well.

FIG. 20(D) the ratio of the reactance measured at different time pointsafter the solution was added into the well to the reactance measuredimmediately after the solution was added into the well.

FIG. 21 illustrates the results for specific detection anddiscrimination of DNA nucleotide substitutions on an ACEA device. TheACEA device is a glass substrate (˜18 mm by 78 mm) on which 16 electrodestructure units were fabricated arranged in a 2 by 8 configuration wherethe unit-to-unit spacing is 9 mm. Gold (˜0.2 micron) over Cr (˜0.03micron) film was deposited on the glass substrate. The electrodestructure unit having a circle-on-a-line electrode geometry (line width30 micron; circle diameter: 90 micron, line gap: 80 micron) waspatterned and fabricated using thin-film photolithography technique(photoresist deposition, mask-covered UV or other light source exposure,photoresist curing, photoresist develop, wet etching of gold metal,removal of remaining gold or other metals). To use the device, a hollowplastic well strip having 16 cylinder shaped, bottomless wells wasbonded to the electrode device so that the electrode structure unitswere exposed to experiment liquid sample when the sample was added tothe plastic wells. The sensor area diameter is about 3 mm and thediameter of the plastic wells is about 6.5 mm. Before use, the devicesurface was treated with 1N HCl for 15 min, followed by rinsing withdeionized water. Three oligonucleotide sequences specific for Chlamydiatrachomatis 16S ribosome RNA (accession No. D85722) were synthesized forthe test. They are (1) a 40 mer 5′end phophothiol-modified captureoligonucleotide sequence corresponding to nucleotides 481-520 of theGenbank accession no. D85722 sequence, (2) a 20 mer wildtype 5′ endbiotinylated target sequence corresponding to the complement ofnucleotides 491-510 of the Genbank accession no. D85722 sequence, and(3) a 20 mer mutant 5′end biotinylated target sequence with a singlenucleotide substitution (C to A at the position 9 of (2), equivalent tothe complement of nucleotide 502 of the Genbank accession no. D85722sequence). In this experiment, the capture oligonucleotide was dissolvedin deionized water at concentration of 2 μM. A better DNA coatingefficiency in 1 M KH₂PO₄ than in H₂O was reported by Tonya M. Herne andMichael J. Tarlov (Herne T M and Tarlov M J, Characterization of DANProbes Immobilized on Gold Surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119,8916-8920). For coating the sensor surface with the captureoligonucleotide sequence, 100 μl of 2 μM capture oligonucleotide wereadded to each sensor and incubated at room temperature for 2 hours,followed by wash with phosphate buffered saline (PBS). After wash, thesensor surface was blocked with 0.3% BSA for 30 min followed by washwith PBS. For DNA hybridization, 100 μl of either 1 nM wildtype or 1 nMmutant oligonucleotide sequences in hybridization buffer (1.0 M NaClwith 10 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.4 and 1 mM EDTA) were added to the captureoligonucleotide-coated sensors. For negative control, no DNA target wasadded. Hybridization was carried out at 42° C. for 30 min followed bywash with phosphate buffer with 50 mM NaCl. For detection of DNAhybridization and discrimation of single nucleotide substitution, 100 μlof streptavidin labeled alkaline phosphotase (1:2000 dilution in Trisbuffer) was added to each senor and incubated for 30 min at roomtemperature followed by wash with Tris buffer. After wash, 100 μl of analkaline phosphotase substrate mix, BCIP/BNT was added and the reactionwas monitored on the impedance analyzer in real time. As shown in thefigure, the specific hybridization between the capture sequence and thewildtype target sequence can be steady detected on the electronicdevice, the signal for which is 92.6 fold higher than the signalgenerated from the negative control sensor at 60 min. Here the signal isthe resistance measured 5 kHz between electrode structures in each well.Notably, the mutant sequence with single nucleotide substitutiongenerated very weak signal compared to its wildtype sequence. The signaldifference at 60 min between the wildtype sequence and the mutantsequence is 30 fold.

FIG. 22 is a schematic representation of a system for monitoring theimpedance change as the cells are adhered to the electrode surfaces.

FIG. 23 is a schematic representation of an apparatus where theelectrode surface has been modified with molecules that promote celladhesions.

FIG. 24 is a schematic diagram for cell migration assay where the cellsare initially grow on a growth region defined by a removable well plate(not shown on the Figure). The wall of the well in the plate isinitially located either over the detection region or within thedetection region. The plate is then removed. Cells are allowed to spreadand migrate over to the detection region defined by the concentricelectrode structures 2410.

FIG. 25 is a schematic diagram for neurite outgrowth detection. A singleneuron is initially located in the neuron anchoring area. The neuronoutgrowth is monitored by impedance change between the concentricelectrode structures 2510 in the detection region.

FIG. 26 illustrates resistance and reactance (mainly capacitivereactance) for 8 different types of electrodes attached with or withoutNIH 3T3 cells. The unit for both resistance and reactance is Ohm. Themagnitudes of the reactance were plotted in a log-scale. Note that thepolarity for the reactance at most of the frequencies was negative(capacitive reactance). In results shown in FIG. 26 through FIG. 32,different types of electrodes were fabricated in glass substrates ( 1 cmby 1 cm by 1 mm). The experimental devices for experiments wereconstructed by gluing bottom less, conical or cylinder shaped plastictubes over glass substrates on which electrode structures werefabricated. Typically, the plastic tubes had diameter between 4.5 mm and6.2 mm on the end that was glued onto the glass substrates. The glasssubstrates formed the bottom of the wells (or fluidic containers) andthe plastic tubes form the wall of the wells (or fluidic containers).For experiments, suspensions of cells in media or media were added intothe wells (or fluidic containers). Electrode structures on the substratewere used to measure impedance changes following cell attachment to theelectrode surfaces to monitor cell attachment and/or growth in the wells(or fluidic containers).

FIG. 27 illustrates quantitative measurement of cells using theelectrode structures of 3B geometry.

FIG. 28 illustrates real time monitoring of NIH 3T3 and PAE cellproliferation using the electrode structures of 3C and 3B geometry.

FIG. 29 illustrates real-time monitoring of NIH 3T3 cell death inducedby ultraviolet (UV) using the electrode structures of 3B geometry.

FIG. 30 illustrates IC₅₀s for tamoxifen toxicity effect at differenttime intervals.

FIG. 31 illustrates impedance comparison among four different cell typesusing the electrode structures of 3C geometry.

FIG. 32 illustrates reproducibility of impedance measurement.

FIG. 33 illustrates five representative designs of the electronic cellchips having electrode structures fabricated on a substrate. The goldelectrodes (thickness of ˜0.2 micron) over a chromium seeding layer(thickness of ˜30 nm) with different geometries and sizes are fabricatedin the central region of the glass substrate. The size of the glasssubstrates is 1 cm×1 cm. The electrode structures on the substrates canbe connected to electric detection interface (i.e., impedancemeasurement circuits or an impedance analyzer) via connection electrodepads located on the sides of the glass substrate.

FIG. 34 illustrates detection or measurement of 4 different cell typeson the testing devices. The 4 cell types were the NIH 3T3 cells (mousefibroblasts), the PAE cells (porcine aortic endothelia), HUVEC (humanendothelia cells), and pHuhep (primary human hepatocytes). For NIH 3T3,and pHuhep cells, the electrodes were coated with fibronectin; for thePAE and HUVEC, the electrodes were coated with gelatin. For each celltype, two devices were used as indicated. The resistance was measured at0 and 3 or 4 hours after seeding. Significant increases in resistancewere seen in NIH 3T3 cells, HUVEC, PAE, and pHuhep cells at 3 or 4hours. Similar to the experimental devices used to obtain results shownin FIG. 26 through FIG. 32, the testing devices used to obtain theresults shown in FIG. 34 (and FIG. 35 through FIG. 37) were constructedby gluing bottom less, conical or cylinder shaped plastic tubes overglass substrates on which electrode structures were fabricated. Theglass substrates formed the bottom of the wells (or fluidic containers)and the plastic tubes form the wall of the wells (or fluidiccontainers). For experiments, suspensions of cells in media or mediawere added into the wells (or fluidic containers). Electrode structureson the substrate were used to measure impedance changes following cellattachment to the electrode surfaces to monitor cell attachment and/orgrowth in the wells (or fluidic containers).

FIG. 35 illustrates real time monitoring of PAE cell proliferation onthe testing devices. Cells were seeded onto the coated electrodes atdifferent densities (8,000 cells and 1,000 cells). Resistance andreactance were measured at different time intervals as indicated tomonitor the cell proliferation. “t0” indicates the measurementimmediately after seeding of the cells. The resistance value increaseswith the cultivation time at both cell seeding densities, indicatingcell proliferation. The cells with a high seeding density proliferatedmuch faster than cells with a lower seeding density. Sd: seedingdensity.

FIG. 36 illustrates quantitative measurement of cells on the testingdevices and by MTT assay. Serially diluted NIH 3T3 cells (10,000 cells,5,000 cells, 2,500 cells, 1,250 cells and 625 cells) were added eitherto the testing devices coated with fibronectin or a 96-well plate. Forthe assay using devices, impedance was measured at 16 hours afterseeding. For MTT assay, cells were stained with MTT dye at 16 hoursafter seeding and then read on an ELISA plate reader at 540 nm. As shownin the figure, the device can quantitatively measure cell numberchanges. The results from both methods are almost identical.

FIG. 37 illustrates reproducibility of resistance measurement on thetesting devices. The reproducibility was tested on 6 devices seeded withprimary human hepatocytes. The resistance for each electrode wasmeasured immediately after seeding (t0), and 4 hours after the seeding.Significant increase in resistance values was seen in all devices after4 hour incubation indicating the cell attachment and spreading ontoelectrode surfaces (and other regions of the substrate surfaces). The CVfor t0 is 4.3% and for t4h is 2.7% as shown in the right hand sidepanel.

FIG. 38(A) shows typical frequency spectra of measured resistance forcircle-on-line electrode structures fabricated on glass substratesunder-two conditions: (a), open symbol, shortly after (within 10minutes, cells had not attached yet to the electrode and substratesurfaces) the tissue culture medium containing HT1080 cells was added toa well containing the electrode structure; (b) solid symbol, 2 h 40minutes (cells were attached to the electrode and substrate surfaces)after the culture medium containing HT1080 cells were added to the wellscontaining the electrode structures on the well bottom surface. Duringthe 2 h 40 minutes period, the well was placed into a tissue cultureincubator that was set at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ level. The electrodestructure is of 3B design where the line width is 30 micron, the gapbetween lines is 80 micron and the continuous circles on the lines have90 micron in diameter. In this example, the total area covered theelectrodes and the gaps between the electrodes correspond to a circle of3 mm in diameter. The electrode structure on the glass substrate forms abottom of a conical shaped well where the top diameter of the well isabout 6.5 mm in diameter whereas the bottom diameter is about 5 mm. Forthe experiment, total 100 microliter volume of the tissue culture mediumcontaining about 7000 HT 1080 cells was added to the wells comprisingthe electrode structure on the bottom of the well.

FIG. 38(B) shows a frequency spectrum of measured reactance for the sameelectrode structures under two same conditions as in FIG. 38(A). Notethat the absolute magnitude of the reactance was plotted in log scale(in the same way as the curves in FIGS. 26). Except for high frequenciesof 1 MHz and about 580 kHz, the reactance was negative (capacitancereactance) for the electrode structures measured shortly after (within10 minutes) the tissue culture medium containing HT1080 cells was addedto the well containing the electrode structures. For the reactancemeasured at 2 h 40 minutes after cell suspension was added into the wellcontaining the electrode structures, the reactance was negativethroughout the frequency range measured between 100 Hz and 1 MHz.

FIG. 38(C) shows the frequency spectrum of the ratio of resistancemeasured with cell-attached onto the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured without cells-attached for the results illustratedin FIG. 38(A).

FIG. 38(D) shows the frequency spectrum of the ratio of reactancemeasured with cell-attached onto the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured without cells-attached for the results illustratedin FIG. 38(A). Note that for this calculation of reactance ratio, thepolarity of the reactance (i.e., capacitance and inductive reactance)was taken into account.

FIG. 39(A) shows typical frequency spectra of measured resistance forcircle-on-line electrode structures fabricated on glass substrates undertwo conditions: (a), open symbol, shortly after (within 10 minutes,cells had not attached yet to the electrode and substrate surfaces) thetissue culture medium containing HT1080 cells was added to a wellcontaining the electrode structure; (b) solid symbol, 2 h 40 minutes(cells were attached to the electrode and substrate surfaces) after theculture medium containing HT1080 cells were added to the wellscontaining the electrode structures on the well bottom surface. Duringthe 2 h 40 minutes period, the well was placed into a tissue cultureincubator that was set at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ level. The electrodestructure is of 3B design where the line width is 30 micron, the gapbetween lines is 80 micron and the continuous circles on the lines have90 micron in diameter. In this example, the total area covered theelectrodes and the gaps between the electrodes correspond to a circle of3 mm in diameter. The electrode structure on the glass substrate forms abottom of a conical shaped well where the top diameter of the well isabout 6.5 mm in diameter whereas the bottom diameter is about 5 mm. Forthe experiment, total 100 microliter volume of the tissue culture mediumcontaining about 3200 HT 1080 cells was added to the wells comprisingthe electrode structure on the bottom of the well.

FIG. 39(B) shows a frequency spectrum of measured reactance for the sameelectrode structures under two same conditions as in FIG. 38(A). Notethat the absolute magnitude of the reactance was plotted in log scale(in the same way as the curves in FIGS. 26). Except for high frequenciesof 1 MHz and about 580 kHz, the reactance was negative (capacitancereactance) for the electrode structures measured shortly after (within10 minutes) the tissue culture medium containing HT1080 cells was addedto the well containing the electrode structures. For the reactancemeasured at 2 h 40 minutes after cell suspension was added into the wellcontaining the electrode structures, the reactance was negativethroughout the frequency range measured between 100 Hz and 1 MHz.

FIG. 39(C) shows the frequency spectrum of the ratio of resistancemeasured with cell-attached onto the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured without cells-attached for the results illustratedin FIG. 39(A).

FIG. 39(D) shows The frequency spectrum of the ratio of reactancemeasured with cell-attached onto the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured without cells-attached for the results illustratedin FIG. 39(A). Note that for this calculation of reactance ratio, thepolarity of the reactance (i.e., capacitance and inductive reactance)was taken into account.

FIG. 40(A) shows typical frequency spectra of measured resistance forcircle-on-line electrode structures fabricated on glass substrates undertwo conditions: (a), open symbol, shortly after (within 10 minutes,cells had not attached yet to the electrode and substrate surfaces) thetissue culture medium containing HT1080 cells was added to a wellcontaining the electrode structure; (b) solid symbol, 2 h 40 minutes(cells were attached to the electrode and substrate surfaces) after theculture medium containing HT1080 cells were added to the wellscontaining the electrode structures on the well bottom surface. Duringthe 2 h 40 minutes period, the well was placed into a tissue cultureincubator that was set at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ level. The electrodestructure is of 3B design where the line width is 30 micron, the gapbetween lines is 80 micron and the continuous circles on the lines have90 micron in diameter. In this example, the total area covered theelectrodes and the gaps between the electrodes correspond to a circle of3 mm in diameter. The electrode structure on the glass substrate forms abottom of a conical shaped well where the top diameter of the well isabout 6.5 mm in diameter whereas the bottom diameter is about 5 mm. Forthe experiment, total 100 microliter volume of the tissue culture mediumcontaining about 500 HT1080 cells was added to the wells comprising theelectrode structure on the bottom of the well.

FIG. 40(B) shows a frequency spectrum of measured reactance for the sameelectrode structures under two same conditions as in FIG. 40(A). Notethat the absolute magnitude of the reactance was plotted in log scale(in the same way as the curves in FIGS. 26). Except for high frequenciesof 1 MHz and about 580 kHz, the reactance was negative (capacitancereactance) for the electrode structures measured under both conditions.

FIG. 40(C) shows the frequency spectrum of the ratio of resistancemeasured with cell-attached onto the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured without cells-attached for the results illustratedin FIG. 40(A).

FIG. 40(D) shows The frequency spectrum of the ratio of reactancemeasured with cell-attached onto the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured without cells-attached for the results illustratedin FIG. 40(A). Note that for this calculation of reactance ratio, thepolarity of the reactance (i.e., capacitance and inductive reactance)was taken into account.

FIG. 41(A) shows the frequency spectra of resistance-ratio for differentnumbers of cells added into the wells comprising the same types ofcircle-on-line electrode structures (electrode geometry 3B). FIG. 41(A)is a summary of the frequency spectra shown in FIGS. 38(C), 39(C) and40(C). One method to calculate “cell number index” is based on suchfrequency spectra of resistance ratios by first determining the maximumvalue of the resistance ratio and then subtracting “one” from themaximum value. The “cell number indices” calculated this way for addingcells of different numbers of 7000, 3200 and 500 are 5.17, 1.82 and0.17, respectively. Evidently, the larger the number of cells, thelarger the cell number index.

FIG. 41(B) shows the frequency spectra of reactance-ratio for differentnumbers of cells added into the wells comprising the same types ofcircle-on-line electrodes (electrode geometry 3B). FIG. 41(A) is asummary of the frequency spectra shown in FIGS. 38(D), 39(D) and 40(D).

FIG. 42(A) shows comparison of frequency spectra of measured resistanceand reactance for four interdigitated electrode structures of differentgeometry having different ratio between electrode width and electrodegaps with or without 3T3 cells attached to the electrode surfaces. Theresistance and reactance spectra for the electrode structures withoutcells attached were measured shortly after (within 10 minutes, cells hadnot attached yet to the electrode and substrate surfaces) the tissueculture medium containing 3T3 cells was added to wells containing theelectrode structures. The resistance and reactance spectra for theelectrode structures without cells attached were measured at 3 hrs afterthe culture medium containing 3T3 cells were added to the wellscontaining the electrode structures on the well bottom surface. Duringthe 3 h period, the wells were placed into a tissue culture incubatorthat was set at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ level. The electrode structures of 2ADgeometry, 2BE geometry and 2CF geometry were fabricated on a 1 cm by 1cm glass substrate, having electrode width of 50, 48 and 48 micron, andhaving electrode gap of 10, 18 and 28 micron, respectively. The areacovered the electrodes and the gaps between the electrodes for 2AD, 2BEand 2CF geometry correspond to a circle of 1 mm, 3 mm and 6 mm diameter.The fourth electrode structures having electrode width and gap beingboth 50 micron were fabricated on a Kapton (polyimide) substrate. Thearea covered the electrodes and the gap between the electrodes were of arectangular shape having 6 mm by 5 mm in dimension. In theseexperiments, conical shaped plastic wells having 4.5 mm in diameter atthe bottom were glued to the glass substrates and Kapton substrate,which comprise different interdigitated electrodes. For the electrodestructures of 2AD and 2BE geometry, the electrode structured werelocated at the central regions of the well bottom. For the electrodestructures of 2CF geometry and the Kapton substrate, the bottom wellswere covered with the electrodes and gaps between the electrodes. Priorto the experiments, the electrode and substrate surfaces were thoroughlycleaned and were coated with fibronectin. Evidently, for a nearlyconstant electrode width of 50 micron and for same number (about 10⁴cells) of 3T3 cells added into the wells, reducing the gap size betweenthe neighboring electrodes resulted in increase in the magnitude ofimpedance change after cell attachment relative to those of no cellattachment on electrodes.

FIG. 42(B) shows the relationship of cell number indexes for different,interdigitated electrode geometry having different ratio of electrodewidth to electrode gaps. The cell number index was calculated bysubtracting one from the maximum ratio of resistance (the resistancemeasured when cells are attached to the electrode surfaces to theresistance measured when no cells are attached to the electrode surfacesat corresponding frequencies). Evidently, for a nearly constantelectrode width of 50 micron and for same number (about 10⁴ cells) of3T3 cells added into the wells, reducing the gap size between theneighboring electrodes resulted in increase in cell number index. Asindicated by the data, a significant increase in the cell number indexis achieved with width/gap ratio of about 1.5 or higher.

FIG. 43 is a schematic diagram for microfluidic channel-basedtwo-electrode sensing.

FIG. 44 is a schematic diagram for microfluidic channel-basedmultiple-electrode sensing. Electrodes 1 (1′ and 1 are connectedtogether) and 4 (4′ and 4 are connected together) are used for supplyinga constant current through the channel whilst the electrodes 2 (2′ and 2are connected together) and 3 (3′ and 3 are connected together) are usedfor monitoring the voltage. When the cells are passing through theregion defined by electrodes 2 (2′)and 3 (3′), the impedance willchange, leading to a change in the voltage between electrodes 2 (2′) and3 (3′).

FIG. 45 is a schematic diagram for impedance analysis of singleparticles going through a micro-pore on a substrate, where theelectrodes are integrated on the substrate.

FIG. 46 is a schematic diagram showing the simultaneous measurement ofimpedance change (Z₁) to monitor cell attachment and adhesion to theelectrodes and the conductivity change (as reflected in the change ofimpedance measured at Z₂) in the solution.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

For clarity of disclosure, and not by way of limitation, the detaileddescription of the invention is divided into the subsections thatfollow.

A. Definitions

For clarity of disclosure, and not by way of limitation, the detaileddescription of the invention is divided into the subsections thatfollow.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skillin the art to which this invention belongs. All patents, applications,published applications and other publications referred to herein areincorporated by reference in their entirety. If a definition set forthin this section is contrary to or otherwise inconsistent with adefinition set forth in the patents, applications, publishedapplications and other publications that are herein incorporated byreference, the definition set forth in this section prevails over thedefinition that is incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, “a” or “an” means “at least one” or “one or more.”

As used herein, “membrane” is a sheet of material.

As used herein, “biocompatible membrane” means a membrane that does nothave deleterious effects on cells, including the viability, attachment,spreading, motility, growth, or cell division.

When a suspension of viable, unimpaired, epithelial or endothelial cellsis added to a vessel, a surface of the vessel “is suitable for cellattachment” when a significant percentage of the cells are adhering tothe surface of the vessel within twelve hours. Preferably, at least 50%of the cells are adhering to the surface of the vessel within twelvehours. More preferably, a surface that is suitable for cell attachmenthas surface properties so that at least 70% of the cells are adhering tothe surface within twelve hours of plating (i.e., adding cells to thevessel). Even more preferably, the surface properties of a surface thatis suitable for cell attachment results in at least 90% of the cellsadhering to the surface within twelve hours of plating. Most preferably,the surface properties of a surface that is suitable for cell attachmentresults in at least 90% of the cells adhering to the surface withineight, six, four, two hours of plating. To have desired surfaceproperties for cell attachment, the surface may need tochemically-treated (e.g. treatment with an acid and/or with a base),and/or physically treated (e.g. treatment with plasma), and/orbiochemically treated (e.g. coated with one or more molecules orbiomolecules that promotes cell attachment). In the present invention, abiocompatible surface (such as a membrane) preferably is suitable forthe attachment of cells of the type that are to be used in an assay thatuses the biocompatible surface (e.g., membrane), and most preferably,allows the attachment of at least 90% of the cells that contact thebiocompatible surface during the assay.

A “biomolecular coating” is a coating on a surface that comprises amolecule that is a naturally occurring biomolecule or biochemical, or abiochemical derived from or based on one or more naturally occurringbiomolecules or biochemicals. For example, a biomolecular coating cancomprise an extracellular matrix component (e.g., fibronectin,collagens), or a derivative thereof, or can comprise a biochemical suchas polylysine or polyornithine, which are polymeric molecules based onthe naturally occurring biochemicals lysine and ornithine. Polymericmolecules based on naturally occurring biochemicals such as amino acidscan use isomers or enantiomers of the naturally-occuring biochemicals.

An “extracellular matrix component” is a molecule that occurs in theextracellular matrix of an animal. It can be a component of anextracellular matrix from any species and from any tissue type.Nonlimiting examples of extracellular matrix components includelaminins, collagens fibronectins, other glycoproteins, peptides,glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, etc. Extracellular matrix componentscan also include growth factors.

An “electrode” is a structure having a high electrical conductivity,that is, an electrical conductivity much higher than the electricalconductivity of the surrounding materials.

As used herein, an “electrode structure” refers to a single electrode,particularly one with a complex structure (as, for example, a spiralelectrode structure), or a collection of at least two electrode elementsthat are electrically connected together. All the electrode elementswithin an “electrode structure” are electrically connected.

As used herein, “electrode element” refers to a single structuralfeature of an electrode structure, such as, for example, a fingerlikeprojection of an interdigitated electrode structure.

As used herein, an “electrode structure unit” is two or more electrodestructures that are constructed to have dimensions and spacing such thatthey can, when connected to a signal source, operate as a unit togenerate an electrical field in the region of spaces around theelectrode structures. Preferred electrode structure units of the presentinvention can measure impedance changes due to cell attachment to anelectrode surface. Non-limiting examples of electrode structure unitsare interdigitated electrode structure units and concentric electrodestructure units.

“Electrode traces” are electrically conductive paths that extend fromelectrodes or electrode elements or electrode structures toward one endor boundary of a device or apparatus for connecting the electrodes orelectrode elements or electrode structures to an impedance analyzer. Theend or boundary of a device may correspond to the connection pads on thedevice or apparatus.

A “connection pad” is an area on an apparatus or a device of the presentinvention which is electrically connected to at least one electrode orall electrode elements within at least one electrode structure on anapparatus or a device and which can be operatively connected to externalelectrical circuits (e.g., an impedance measurement circuit or a signalsource). The electrical connection between a connection pad and animpedance measurement circuit or a signal source can be direct orindirect, through any appropriate electrical conduction means such asleads or wires. Such electrical conduction means may also go throughelectrode or electrical conduction paths located on other regions of theapparatus or device.

“Interdigitated” means having projections coming one direction thatinterlace with projections coming from a different direction in themanner of the fingers of folded hands (with the caveat thatinterdigitated electrode elements preferably do not contact oneanother).

As used herein, a “high probability of contacting an electrode element”means that, if a cell is randomly positioned within the sensor area of adevice or apparatus of the present invention, the probability of a cell(or particle) contacting on an electrode element, calculated from theaverage diameter of a cell used on or in a device or apparatus of thepresent invention, the sizes of the electrode elements, and the size ofthe gaps between electrode elements, is greater than about 50%, morepreferably greater than about 60%, yet more preferably greater thanabout 70%, and even more preferably greater than about 80%, greater thanabout 90%, or greater than about 95%.

As used herein, “at least two electrodes fabricated on said substrate”means that the at least two electrodes are fabricated or made orproduced on the substrate. The at least two electrodes can be on thesame side of the substrate or on the different side of the substrate.The substrate may have multiple layers, the at least two electrodes canbe either on the same or on the different layers of the substrate.

As used herein, “at least two electrodes fabricated to a same side ofsaid substrate” means that the at least two electrodes are fabricated onthe same side of the substrate.

As used herein, “at least two electrodes fabricated to a same plane ofsaid substrate” means that, if the nonconducting substrate has multiplelayers, the at least two electrodes are fabricated to the same layer ofthe substrate.

As used herein, “said . . . electrodes have substantially same surfacearea” means that the surface areas of the electrodes referred to are notsubstantially different from each other, so that the impedance changedue to cell attachment or growth on any one of the electrodes referredto will contribute to the overall detectable change in impedance to asame or similar degree as the impedance change due to cell attachment orgrowth on any other of the electrodes referred to. In other words, whereelectrodes have substantially the same surface area, any one of theelectrodes can contribute to overall change in impedance upon cellattachment or growth on the electrode. In most cases, the ratio ofsurface area between the largest electrode and the smallest electrodethat have “substantially the same surface area” is less than 10.Preferably, the ratio of surface area between the largest electrode andthe smallest electrode of an electrode structure is less than 5, 4, 3,2, 1.5, 1.2 or 1.1. More preferably, the at least two electrodes of anelectrode structure have nearly identical or identical surface area.

As used herein, “said device has a surface suitable for cell attachmentor growth” means that the electrode and/or non-electrode area of theapparatus has appropriate physical, chemical or biological propertiessuch that cells of interest can viably attach on the surface and newcells can continue to attach, while the cell culture grows, on thesurface of the apparatus. However, it is not necessary that the device,or the surface thereof, contain substances necessary for cell viabilityor growth. These necessary substances, e.g., nutrients or growthfactors, can be supplied in a medium. Preferably, when a suspension ofviable, unimpaired, epithelial or endothelial cells is added to the“surface suitable for cell attachment” when at least 50% of the cellsare adhering to the surface within twelve hours. More preferably, asurface that is suitable for cell attachment has surface properties sothat at least 70% of the cells are adhering to the surface within twelvehours of plating (i.e., adding cells to the chamber or well thatcomprises the said device). Even more preferably, the surface propertiesof a surface that is suitable for cell attachment results in at least90% of the cells adhering to the surface within twelve hours of plating.Most preferably, the surface properties of a surface that is suitablefor cell attachment results in at least 90% of the cells adhering to thesurface within eight, six, four, two hours of plating.

As used herein, “detectable change in impedance between or among saidelectrodes” means that the impedance between or among said electrodeswould have a significant change that can be detected by an impedanceanalyzer or impedance measurement circuit when molecule binding reactionoccurs on the electrode surfaces. The impedance change refers to thedifference in impedance values when molecule binding reaction occurs onthe electrode surface of the apparatus and when no molecular reactionoccurs on the electrode surface. Alternatively, the impedance changerefers to the difference in impedance values when cells are attached tothe electrode surface and when cells are not attached to the electrodesurface, or when the number, type, activity, or morphology of cellsattached to the electrode-comprising surface of the apparatus changes.In most cases, the change in impedance is larger than 0.1% to bedetectable. Preferably, the detectable change in impedance is largerthan 1%, 2%, 5%, or 8%. More preferably, the detectable change inimpedance is larger than 10%. Impedance between or among electrodes istypically a function of the frequency of the applied electric field formeasurement. “Detectable change in impedance between or among saidelectrodes” does not require the impedance change at all frequenciesbeing detectable. “Detectable change in impedance between or among saidelectrodes” only requires a detectable change in impedance at any singlefrequency (or multiple frequencies). In addition, impedance has twocomponents, resistance and reactance (reactance can be divided into twocategories, capacitive reactance and inductive reactance). “Detectablechange in impedance between or among said electrodes” requires only thateither one of resistance and reactance has a detectable change at anysingle frequency or multiple frequencies. In the present application,impedance is the electrical or electronic impedance. The method for themeasurement of such impedance is achieved by, (1) applying a voltagebetween or among said electrodes at a given frequency (or multiplefrequencies, or having specific voltage waveform) and monitoring theelectrical current through said electrodes at the frequency (or multiplefrequencies, or having specific waveform), dividing the voltageamplitude value by the current amplitude value to derive the impedancevalue; (2) applying an electric current of a single frequency component(or multiple frequencies or having specific current wave form) throughsaid electrodes and monitoring the voltage resulted between or amongsaid electrodes at the frequency (or multiple frequencies, or havingspecific waveform), dividing the voltage amplitude value by the currentamplitude value to derive the impedance value; (3) other methods thatcan measure or determine electric impedance. Note that in thedescription above of “dividing the voltage amplitude value by thecurrent amplitude value to derive the impedance value”, the “division”is done for the values of current amplitude and voltage amplitude atsame frequencies. Measurement of such electric impedance is anelectronic or electrical process that does not involve the use of anyreagents.

As used herein, “said at least two electrodes have substantiallydifferent surface area” means that the surface areas of any electrodesare not similar to each other so that the impedance change due to cellattachment or growth on the larger electrode will not contribute to theoverall detectable impedance to a same or similar degree as theimpedance change due to cell attachment or growth on the smallerelectrodes. Preferably, any impedance change due to cell attachment orgrowth on the larger electrode is significantly smaller than theimpedance change due to cell attachment or growth on the smallerelectrode. Ordinarily, the ratio of surface area between the largestelectrode and the smallest electrode is more than 10. Preferably, theratio of surface area between the largest electrode and the smallestelectrode is more than 20, 30, 40, 50 or 100.

As used herein, “multiple pairs of electrodes or electrode structuresspatially arranged according to wells of a multi-well microplate” meansthat the multiple pairs of electrodes or electrode structures of adevice or apparatus are spatially arranged to match the spatialconfiguration of wells of a multi-well microplate so that, whendesirable, the device can be inserted into, joined with, or attached toa multiwell plate (for example, a bottomless multiwell plate) such thatmultiple wells of the multi-well microplate will comprise electrodes orelectrode structures.

As used herein, “arranged in a row-column configuration” means that, interms of electric connection, the position of an electrode, an electrodearray or a switching circuit is identified by both a row position numberand a column position number.

As used herein, “each well contains substantially same number . . . ofcells” means that the lowest number of cells in a well is at least 50%of the highest number of cells in a well. Preferably, the lowest numberof cells in a well is at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% of thehighest number of cells in a well. More preferably, each well containsan identical number of cells.

As used herein, “each well contains . . . same type of cells” meansthat, for the intended purpose, each well contains same type of cells;it is not necessary that each well contains exactly identical type ofcells. For example, if the intended purpose is that each well containsmammalian cells, it is permissible if each well contains same type ofmammalian cells, e.g., human cells, or different mammalian cells, e.g.,human cells as well as other non-human mammalian cells such as mice,goat or monkey cells, etc.

As used herein, “each well contains . . . serially differentconcentration of a test compound” means that each well contains a testcompound with a serially diluted concentrations, e.g., an one-tenthserially diluted concentrations of 1 M, 0.1 M, 0.01 M, etc.

As used herein, “dose-response curve” means the dependent relationshipof response of cells on the dose concentration of a test compound. Theresponse of cells can be measured by many different parameters. Forexample, a test compound is suspected to have cytotoxicity and causecell death. Then the response of cells can be measured by percentage ofnon-viable (or viable) cells after the cells are treated by the testcompound.

As used herein, “the electrodes have, along the length of themicrochannel, a length that is substantially less than the largestsingle-dimension of a particle to be analyzed” means that the electrodeshave, along the length of the microchannel, a length that is at leastless than 90% of the largest single-dimension of a particle to beanalyzed. Preferably, the electrodes have, along the length of themicrochannel, a length that is at least less than 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%,40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, 5% of the largest single-dimension of a particle tobe analyzed.

As used herein, “the microelectrodes span the entire height of themicrochannel” means that the microelectrodes span at least 70% of theentire height of the microchannel. Preferably, microelectrodes span atleast 80%, 90%, 95% of the entire height of the microchannel. Morepreferably, microelectrodes span at least 100% of the entire height ofthe microchannel.

As used herein, “an aperture having a pore size that equals to or isslightly larger than size of said particle” means that aperture has apore size that at least equals to the particle size but less than 300%of the particle size. Here both pore size and particle size are measuredin terms of single dimension value.

As used herein, “microelectrode strip or electrode strip” means that anon-conducting substrate strip on which electrodes or electrodestructure units are fabricated or incorporated. The non-limitingexamples of the non-conducting substrate strips include polymermembrane, glass, plastic sheets, ceramics, insulator-on-semiconductor,fiber glass (like those for manufacturing printed-circuits-board).Electrode structure units having different geometries can be fabricatedor made on the substrate strip by any suitable microfabrication,micromachining, or other methods. Non-limiting examples of electrodegeometries include interdigitated electrodes, circle-on-line electrodes,diamond-on-line electrodes, castellated electrodes, or sinusoidalelectrodes. Characteristic dimensions of these electrode geometries mayvary from as small as less than 5 micron, or less than 10 micron, to aslarge as over 200 micron, over 500 micron, over 1 mm. The characteristicdimensions of the electrode geometries refer to the smallest width ofthe electrode elements, or smallest gaps between the adjacent electrodeelements, or size of a repeating feature on the electrode geometries.The microelectrode strip can be of any geometry for the presentinvention. One exemplary geometry for the microelectrode strips isrectangular shape—having the width of the strip between less than 50micron to over 10 mm, and having the length of the strip between lessthan 60 micron to over 15 mm. An exemplary geometry of themicroelectrode strips may have a geometry having a width of 200 micronand a length of 20 mm. A single microelectrode strip may have twoelectrodes serving as a measurement unit, or multiple suchtwo-electrodes serving as multiple measurement units, or a singleelectrode structure unit as a measurement unit, or multiple electrodestructure units serving as multiple electrode structure units. In oneexemplary embodiment, when multiple electrode structure units arefabricated on a single microelectrode strip, these electrode structureunits are positioned along the length direction of the strip. Theelectrode structure units may be of squared-shape, or rectangular-shape,or circle shapes. Each of electrode structure units may occupy size fromless than 50 micron by 50 micron, to larger than 2 mm×2 mm.

As used herein, “sample” refers to anything which may contain a moietyto be isolated, manipulated, measured, quantified, detected or analyzedusing apparatuses, microplates or methods in the present application.The sample may be a biological sample, such as a biological fluid or abiological tissue. Examples of biological fluids include suspension ofcells in a medium such as cell culture medium, urine, blood, plasma,serum, saliva, semen, stool, sputum, cerebral spinal fluid, tears,mucus, amniotic fluid or the like. Biological tissues are aggregates ofcells, usually of a particular kind together with their intercellularsubstance that form one of the structural materials of a human, animal,plant, bacterial, fungal or viral structure, including connective,epithelium, muscle and nerve tissues. Examples of biological tissuesalso include organs, tumors, lymph nodes, arteries and individualcell(s). The biological samples may further include cell suspensions,solutions containing biological molecules (e.g. proteins, enzymes,nucleic acids, carbonhydrates, chemical molecules binding to biologicalmolecules).

As used herein, a “liquid (fluid) sample” refers to a sample thatnaturally exists as a liquid or fluid, e.g., a biological fluid. A“liquid sample” also refers to a sample that naturally exists in anon-liquid status, e.g., solid or gas, but is prepared as a liquid,fluid, solution or suspension containing the solid or gas samplematerial. For example, a liquid sample can encompass a liquid, fluid,solution or suspension containing a biological tissue.

B. Devices and Methods for Analyzing or Assaying Molecules and Cells

The devices for assaying target molecules of the invention permitanalysis of multiple samples of molecules in a simple, automatablefashion. Generally, the devices include: a) a non-conducting substrate;b) at least two electrodes fabricated on said substrate, wherein thesurfaces of said electrodes are modified with capture molecules to whichtarget molecules in a solution can bind, c) at least two connection padson said substrate, wherein said at least two electrodes are electricallyconnected by traces respectively to said at least two connection pads.In use, binding of target molecules from a biological sample (preferablyin solution) to capture molecules on electrode surfaces results in adetectable change in impedance between or among said at least twoelectrodes.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a device forassaying molecules in a sample solution, which device comprises: a) anonconducting substrate; b) at least two electrode structures fabricatedon said substrate, wherein i) one of said at least two electrodestructures has at least two electrode elements; and ii) the surfaces ofsaid at least two electrode structures are modified with capturemolecules to which target molecules in a solution or suspected in asolution can bind; c) at least two connection pads on said substrate,wherein said at least two electrode structures are connectedrespectively to said at least two connection pads, wherein said bindingof target molecules in a solution or suspected in a solution to capturemolecules results in a detectable change in impedance between or amongsaid at least two electrode structures.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a device formonitoring cell-substrate impedance, which device comprises: a) anonconducting substrate; b) at least two electrodes fabricated on a sameside of the substrate, wherein the at least two electrodes havesubstantially the same surface area; and c) at least one connection padon said substrate, wherein said at least two electrodes are connected tosaid at least one connection pad; in which the device has a surfacesuitable for cell attachment or growth and cell attachment or growth onthe device results in detectable change in impedance between or amongthe at least two electrodes.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to apparatus formonitoring cell-substrate impedance, which apparatus comprises: a) anonconducting substrate; b) at least two electrodes fabricated on thesame side of the substrate, in which the at least two electrodes havesubstantially same surface area; c) at least one connection pad on saidsubstrate, wherein said at least two electrodes are connected to said atleast one connection pad; and d) an impedance analyzer connected to theone or more connection pads, wherein the device has a surface suitablefor cell attachment or growth and cell attachment or growth on thedevice results in a detectable change in impedance between or among theat least two electrodes.

In still another aspect, the present invention is directed to a devicefor monitoring cell-substrate impedance, which device comprises: a) anonconducting substrate; b) at least two electrode structures fabricatedto the same side of said substrate, wherein said at least two electrodestructures have substantially same surface area and each of said atleast two electrode structures comprises two or more electrode elements;c) at least one connection pad on said substrate, wherein said at leasttwo electrode structures are connected to said at least one connectionpad; wherein the device has a surface suitable for cell attachment orgrowth and cell attachment or growth on the device results in adetectable change in impedance between or among the at least twoelectrode structures.

Preferably, cell attachment or growth on the surface of any of theelectrodes or electrode structures in the above devices results indetectable change in impedance between or among said electrodes orelectrode structures.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a device formonitoring cell-substrate impedance, which device comprises: a) anonconducting substrate; b) at least two electrodes fabricated on thesame side of the substrate, the at least two electrodes havingsubstantially different surface areas; and c) means for connecting saidat least two electrodes to connection pads located on the substrate,wherein the device has a surface suitable for cell attachment or growthand said cell attachment or growth on the device results in a detectablechange in impedance between or among the at least two electrodes.Preferably, an electrode having a smaller surface area than the largestelectrode of said at least two electrodes has a surface modified by acell adhesion-promoting moiety.

The change in impedance to be detected in the above devices for assayingtarget molecules or monitoring cell-substrate impedance can be measuredin any suitable range of frequency. For example, the impedance can bemeasured in a frequency ranging from about 1 Hz to about 100 MHz. Theimpedance can be measured in a frequency ranging from about 100 Hz toabout 2 MHz. The impedance is typically a function of the frequency,i.e., the impedance values change as frequency changes.

The impedance between or among electrodes has two components—aresistance component and a reactance component. The reactance can bedivided into two categories, capacitive reactance and inductivereactance. In cases where an impedance has a resistance component and acapacitive reactance component, the impedance is sometimes said to havea resistance component and a capacitance component. A change in eitherresistance component or reactance component or both components canconstitute a change in impedance.

Any suitable nonconductive substrate can be used in the present devices.As used herein “non-conducting” means nonconductive at the conditionsunder which the device is to be used, in particular, materials havingresistivities greater than about 10⁵ ohm meters, and preferably greaterthan about 10⁶ ohm meter, more preferably greater than about 10⁷ ohmmeters. Exemplary substrates can comprise many materials, including, butnot limited to, silicon dioxide on silicon, silicon-on-insulator (SOI)wafer, glass (e.g., quartz glass, lead glass or borosilicate glass),sapphire, ceramics, polymer, plastics, e.g., polyimide (e.g. Kapton,polyimide film supplied by DuPont), polystyrene, polycarbonate,polyvinyl chloride, polyester, polypropylene and urea resin. Preferably,the substrate and the surface of the substrate are not going tointerfere with molecular binding reactions that will occur at thesubstrate surface. For cell-substrate impedance monitoring, any surfaceof the nonconducting substrate that can be exposed to cells during theuse of a device of the present invention is preferably biocompatible.Substrate materials that are not biocompatible can be made biocompatibleby coating with another material, such as polymer or biomolecularcoating. The substrate material may be porous or non-porous. Thesubstrate can also be made of a printed-circuit-board (PCB). In thiscase, the PCB board refers to a mechanical assembly including layers offiberglass sheet, optionally laminated with etched metal film patterns(e.g. copper patterns). For electronics industry, aprinted-circuit-board is used to mount electronic parts suitable forpackaging. In the present application, the PCB board can be used topattern desired electrode configurations for detecting and measuringmolecules in the solution, and for measuring cell-substrate impedance.The surfaces of PCB substrates that are exposed to sample solutions inusing a device of the present invention can be coated, for example withpolymers or biomolecular coatings, if necessary. For monitoringcell-substrate impedance, the surfaces of PCB substrates that areexposed to cells in using a device or apparatus of the present inventioncan be coated, for example with polymers or biomolecular coatings, torender the surfaces biocompatible.

A substrate can have a coating to which the target molecules in asolution or suspected in a solution can bind to. The coating may containspecific capture molecules to which to the target molecules canspecifically bind to. The capture molecules can be any moleculesincluding nucleic acid molecules, protein molecules, antibodies (againstproteins, antigens, nucleic acid molecules such as DNA or RNA or DNA/RNAhybrids, chemical molecules, etc), or any combination of the above.

A substrate can have a coating that can promote cell attachment. Thecoating can be a polymer, such as a plastic film, or one or morebiomolecules or one or more derivatives of one or more biomolecules,such as, but not limited to a polymer such as polyornithine orpolylysine, peptides or proteins, or extracellular matrix components (orderivatives thereof), including, but not limited to, gelatin,fibronectin, laminin, collagen, one or more glycosaminoglycans, one ormore peptidoglycans, etc. Such coatings can preferably but optionallycover the entire surface of a substrate that is exposed to or can becontacted by cells during the use of a device, including the electrodesurfaces. A coating can be a semi-solid or gel. A coating can be asimple or complex mixture of biomolecules and can simulate or replicatea naturally occurring extracellular matrix.

The extracellular matrix that surrounds many animal cells forms thestructural framework that stabilizes tissues and plays an important rolein cell differentiation, proliferation, migration, shape, orientationand signaling pathways. Although many cell types can be cultured ontissue culture plastic, this environment is not physiological.Extracellular matrix molecules when coated on substrates can provide aneffective physiological substrate that support and promotes key cellfunctions. A given extracellular matrix (natural, derived from cells ortissues, or artificial) can be a complex mixture containingglycoproteins, collagens and proteoglycans. Nonlimiting examples ofextracellular matrix components include collagens (e.g., fibrillar, typeI, V and II), glycoproteins such as fibronectin, laminin, vitronectin,thrombospondin, tensascin. An extracellular matrix can optionallycomprise additional components such as, but not limited to, growthfactors

For example, Matrigel™ Basement Membrane Matrix (BD BioSciences) is asolubilized basement membrane preparation extracted from theEngelbreth-Holm-Swarm (REHS) mouse sarcoma, a tumor rich inextracellular matrix proteins. Its major component is laminin, followedby collagen IV, heparan sulfate proteoglycans, entactin and nidogen. Italso contains TGF-beta, fibroblast growth factor, tissue plasminogenactivator, and other growth factors which occur naturally in the EHStumor.

In use, a device of the present invention can include one or morereceptacles which serve as fluid containers. Such receptacles may bereversibly or irreversibly attached to or formed within the substrate orportions thereof (such as, for example, wells formed as in a microtiterplate). In another example, the device of the present invention includesmicroelectrode strips reversibly or irreversibly attached to plastichousings that have openings that correspond to electrode structure unitslocated on the microelectrode strips. Suitable fluid container materialscomprise plastics, glass, or plastic coated materials such as ceramics,glass, metal, etc.

A substrate of a device of the present invention can have one or moreholes, or pores. In some preferred embodiments of the present invention,in which a change in impedance is detected by cell attachment, forexample, to the upper surface of a substrate, and the upper surface ofthe substrate comprises one or more electrodes, the holes in thesubstrate can be less than the diameter of the cells to be used in anassay using the device, such that the cells do not go through the holesof the substrate. For example, the pores can be less than about 5microns, or less than about 1 micron in diameter. Media or othersolutions or gels, including media, solutions, or gels containing growthfactors, chemoattractants, drugs, or test compounds can optionally beprovided beneath the substrate where they can permeate the poroussubstrate.

It is an object of the present invention to reliably, sensitively, andquantitatively measure and monitor target molecules or cells which arein or suspected to be in sample solutions. To this end, electrodes arearranged over the surface of the substrate called the “sensor area” thatcomprises electrodes and the gaps between electrodes. For monitoringbehavior of cells, it is preferred that electrodes be arranged suchthat, over the “sensor area”, there is a distribution of electrodes orelectrode elements such that contact and/or attachment of a cell withthe substrate in the sensor area has a high probability of resulting incontact and/or attachment of the cell with at least one electrode orelectrode element (or portion or portions thereof) on the substrate. Inmost aspects of the present invention, a substrate (or a portionthereof) will be encompassed by a fluid container (for example a well)in which an assay can be performed. In these aspects, it is preferredthat the sensor area of a substrate will include the surface region of adevice, which region is enclosed in a fluid container such as a well.That means, when a device is assembled to a fluidic container with theelectrode sensor area facing up and the plane on which electrodes arelocated forming the inner, bottom surface of the fluidic container, thesensor area occupies the entire, inner, bottom surface of the fluidiccontainer. A high probability of a cell contacting an electrode means agreater than 50% probability, preferably a greater than 70% probability,and more preferably a greater than 90% probability.

Thus, in one preferred aspect of the present invention, a device of thepresent invention comprises more than one electrode structure and can bereversibly or irreversibly attached to a bottomless multi-well plate,for example, such that the substrate of the device forms the bottoms ofthe wells. A particularly preferred embodiment of the device is abottomless multi-well plate fitted perpendicularly with tubular fluidcontainers with opposing open ends which are attached in a fluid-tightfashion to the well bearing surface of the substrate.

The fluid containers of the device, if present, may be of any diameteror size sufficient to retain a biological fluid sample on the electrodesensors of the device. However, using a bottomless multi-well platefitted perpendicularly with tubular fluid containers with opposing openends as an example, it will be appreciated that the diameter of thecontainers at the mouth of the containers should preferably be justlarger than the diameter of each well around which the container isdisposed.

In an especially preferred embodiment, the diameter of each fluidcontainer disposed around each well on the substrate is larger at themouth of the fluid container opposite the substrate than at the end ofthe container attached to the substrate. For example, the diameter ofthe mouth of the container may be of a size sufficient to permit entryof an automated sample applicator into each container (see, e.g., FIG.8, element shown at 830).

Using a conventional microtiter plate well (a 96 well plate) as areference, an example of a suitable diameter for the substrate-attachedend of the fluid container would be a diameter between 4 and 7 mm;preferably between 4 and 6.5 mm. In the latter configuration (using a6.5 mm container diameter for reference), the space between fluidcontainers in a column of such containers would be approximately 2.5 mm,while the space between fluid containers in adjacent rows of suchcontainers would be approximately 9 mm. The diameter for thesubstrate-attached end of the container may also be related to the sizeof the sensor areas (including the electrode elements and the gapsbetween them). As will be seen below, in a preferred embodiment, thesensor area occupies nearly entire surface region of the device, whereinsuch surface region is enclosed or will be enclosed within a fluidcontainer. Thus, if the diameter for the substrate-attached end of thecontainer is too large, it will leave very little space for electrodetraces extending from electrodes to the ends or edges of the substrate.In one particular exemplary embodiment for a 96 well plate, the diameterfor the substrate-attached end of the container is 5 mm and the diameterof the sensor area using, for example, electrodes shown in FIG. 1A, is5.5 mm. Here the sensor area in FIG. 1A refers to the area defined bythe inner diameter of the two arc-shaped, electrically conductingconnection traces 125.

The electrodes or electrode elements within an electrode structure inthe present apparatuses can have any suitable shape, e.g., arectangular, circular, a circle on a rectangular line(“circle-on-line”), a square on a rectangular line or a sinusoidal line.They can also take the form of curved lines such as, but not limited tospirals or arcs. Some examples of electrodes, electrode structures orelectrode structure units for the device of the present invention areshows in FIGS. 1 and 7.

In some preferred embodiments of the present invention, electrodestructures can be interdigitated electrode structures (IDESs) orconcentric electrode structures (CCESs), such as those depicted in FIGS.1B, 1C, 7A and FIG. 7F. For example, an electrode structure can comprisetwo or more electrodes configured as one or more IDESs or one or moreCCESs. Interdigitated electrode structures (IDESs) can be furthermodified or changed so that the parallel line electrode elements havelarge perimeter subgeometries, meaning that, as viewed from above,superimposed on the linear electrode elements (which may itself beparallel lines, curved, loop, form angles, turn corners, etc.) arebranches, outcroppings, bulges, and the like, giving the linearelectrode path a larger perimeter than if its edges conformed to thedirectionality of the path of the electrode element. Examples of suchlarge perimeter structures are a diamond-on-line electrode structures,circle-on-line electrode structures shown in FIGS. 1A and 7C, astellatedelectrode structures as shown in FIGS. 7B and 7D. Electrode structureswith large perimeter subgeometries are not limited to those depictedherein, and can be regular or irregular, both in the periodicity of thesubgeometries and in the shapes of the subgeometries (curves, angles,circles, rectangles) themselves.

Electrodes or electrode elements are preferably distributed over theentire surface of the device they are fabricated on, wherein suchsurface region is or will be exposed to contact by sample solutionsincluding cells and/or target molecules. In another word, the surfaceregion that is or will be exposed to sample solutions is covered withelectrodes (or electrode elements) and gaps between electrodes (orelectrode elements). In preferred devices of the present invention, thesensor area can occupy at least 5%, 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% oreven 100% of the entire surface region of the device, wherein suchsurface region is enclosed or will be enclosed within a fluid container.In another word, in preferred devices of the present invention, at least5%, 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or even 100% of the surface regionthat is enclosed or will be enclosed within a fluid chamber and that isexposed or will be exposed to sample solution is covered with electrodes(or electrode elements) and gaps between electrodes (or electrodeelements). Preferably, the distribution of electrodes or electrodeelements over the sensor area is uniform or approximately uniform.

In embodiments in which a device comprises at least two electrodestructures, the two or more electrode elements are preferably arrangedin the electrode structures. Where an electrode element is not ofrectangular geometry, “electrode width or electrode element width”refers to the averaged dimension of the electrode element that extendsin the plane of the substrate (in the direction normal to the major axisof the electrode element) from where it borders one electrode gap towhere it borders the electrode gap on its opposite side. Where anelectrode gap is not of rectangular geometry, “electrode gap” refers tothe averaged dimension of the gap that extends in the plane of thesubstrate (in the direction normal to the major axis of the gap) fromwhere it borders one electrode element to where it borders the otherelectrode element on its opposite side.

For monitoring the behavior of cells, preferably, the gap betweenelectrode elements does not substantially exceed the size (e.g. width ofcells when they spread and attach on the substrate) of cells whosebehavior is to be monitored using the device. This reduces thepossibility that contact between a cell and a substrate occurs withoutthe cell contacting at least a portion of an electrode or electrodeelement. Further, the width of the gap between electrode elements (orthe gap size) preferably is not substantially less than the size ofcells (e.g. width of an average cell when it spreads and attaches to thesubstrate) whose behavior is to be monitored using the device, to reducethe possibility of a cell contacting two neighboring electrode elementsis measured and thereby giving rise to a somewhat disproportionatelylarge impedance signal, in comparison to a cell contacting only oneelectrode element. This is particularly important, if the electrodewidth is much larger (e.g. ten times) than the size of cells whosebehavior is to be monitored using the device. On the other hand, if theelectrode width is in comparable with the size of cells (e.g. width ofan average cell when it spreads and attaches to the substrate), thewidth of the gap between electrode elements can be somewhat smaller thanthe size of cells. While other gap dimensions may be used, preferably,the gap between electrode elements of the electrode structures rangesfrom about 0.2 times and 3 times the width of an average cell used in anassay using the device. Preferably, the width of a gap betweenelectrodes or electrode elements of a device of the present inventionused for monitoring eukaryotic cells, such as mammalian cells, such ascancer cells, endothelial or epithelial cells, is between about 3microns and 80 microns, more preferably between about 5 microns and 50microns, and most preferably between about 8 microns and 30 microns.

The width of an electrode element is preferably not too narrow since theresistance of the electrode elements will increase as the width of theelectrode element decreases. The increased resistance along theelectrode elements will cause a large electrical potential differencebetween different points along the electrode element, resulting indifference impedance signals for cells landed on and attach to differentregions of the electrode elements. It is preferred that cells landed onand attached to any region on the substrate surfaces give similarimpedance signals. Thus, for an electrode element that is part of aninterdigitated electrode structure or concentric electrode structure,where the device is to be used for monitoring eukaryotic cells, such asmammalian cells, such as cancer cells, endothelial or epithelial cells,the electrode width is preferably greater than about 3 microns, and morepreferably greater than about 10 microns. The width is also limited bythe consideration that if an electrode element is very wide, a cell thatis positioned over a central part of such a very wide electrode willresult in a small impedance signal when compared with that of a cellthat is positioned over the edge of an electrode, where the fieldstrength can be significantly higher. Preferably, an electrode element'swidth is between about 0.5 times and about 10 times the size (e.g., thewidth of an average cell when it spreads and attaches to the substrate)of cells used in an assay that uses the device. Preferably, for anelectrode element that is part of an IDES or CCES, where the device isto be used for monitoring eukaryotic cells, such as mammalian cells,such as cancer cells, endothelial or epithelial cells, an electrode orelectrode element is less than about 500 microns wide, and is preferablyless than about 250 microns wide. In some preferred embodiments of thepresent invention, an electrode element is between about 20 microns andabout 250 microns wide.

In the present application, it is preferred that the electrode gapbetween electrode elements should be designed with respect to theelectrode width. While other ratios of the electrode element width togap may be utilized, preferably, the ratio of electrode element width togap width is between about 1:3 and 20:1. Preferably, the electrodeelement width is between 1.5 and 15 times the gap width. Morepreferably, the electrode element width is between 2 and 6 times the gapwidth; for example, if the electrode width is 90 microns at the widestpoint of each electrode, the gap width would be about 20 microns at thewidest point of the gap between adjacent electrodes. For the presentapplication, the electrode width can range from less than 5 microns tomore than 10 mm. Preferably, the electrode width is in the range between10 micron and 1 mm. More preferably, the electrode width is in the rangebetween 20 micron and 500 micron.

The electrode elements within an electrode structure can be connectedwith each other by any electrically-conducting connection traces. Forexample, the electrode elements 110 a, 110 b and 110 c within theelectrode structure 110 of FIG. 1A are connected to each other by thearc-shaped, electrically conducting connection traces or electrode buses(125). Since such electrically conducting connection traces (electrodebuses) may have different geometries (thus having different electricfield strength and distribution) from that of the electrode elements,molecular reactions on (or cell attachment to) these connectionelectrode buses may result in different impedance signals from molecularreactions on (or cell attachment to) electrode elements. Although not alimitation or requirement, in some applications it is preferred thatmolecular reactions do not occur on these electric connection traces(electrode buses). Similarly, it is preferred that cells do not attachto these electrode buses. Thus, such connection traces may have anelectrically insulating coating so that molecular reactions on or cellattachment to these connection trace regions will not result in a changein impedance between or among electrodes. In some embodiments, theelectrode buses or electrically-conducting connection traces (e.g., 125and 225 in FIGS. 1A and 1B) to connect the electrode elements may belocated outside the bottom surface of a fluidic container or well thatcomprise the electrode structure. In this way, when sample solutions areadded into the fluidic container or well, molecular reactions (or cellattachment) will not occur on such electrical connection traces. Takingthe electrode structure 110 in FIG. 1A as an example, the inner diameterof the arc-shaped, electrically conducting connection traces may have adiameter of 1.2 mm. This exemplary device is assembled to a plastic,cylinder shaped, fluidic container which has openings on both ends. Theinner diameter of the cylinder-shaped fluidic container may be 1 mm.Using a double-sided adhesive (for example, apressure-sensitive-adhesive), the electrode device can be bond to thefluidic container. The electrode area is concentrically aligned with andbond to a circular end of the fluidic container. Thus, the 1.2 mmdiameter will be located outside of the bottom surface of the container.

Non-limiting examples of materials for electrodes or electrode elementsare indium tin oxide (ITO), chromium, gold, copper, nickel, platinum,silver, steel, and aluminum. Electrodes can comprise more than onematerial. Choice of appropriate materials for making electrodes dependson several factors: whether the material is conductive enough, howdifficult it is for patterning such material on a substrate, whether thematerial can be reliably used for performing molecular detection assayof the present invention.

Electrode or microelectrodes of the present invention can be of anyelectrically conductive material. For example, gold (Au), platinum (Pt)can be used. When substrates such as glass and/or plastics are used, anadhesion layer of metal such as Cr and Ti can be used. In order toreduce the electric resistance of the electrodes, electrodes withconductive thin films are desirable to have certain thickness. As anon-limiting example, electrodes can be made with a 300 Angstrom Crlayer overlaid by 2000 Angstrom Au. Since such electrode layers will beoptically non-transparent, the molecular interactions occurring on thistype of electrode surfaces cannot be monitored directly with opticalmeans if the optical detection requires the light transmission throughthe substrate surface on which electrodes are incorporated into.Similarly, the cells attached or adhering to thus type of the electrodescannot be monitored directly, either. For this reason, in someembodiments of multiwell plate comprising electrode structures forimpedance monitoring of molecular reactions, some of the wells in themultiwell plates are electrode-free so that molecular reactions or cellsattached or grown in these wells can be readily monitored by opticalmeasurement methods. For molecular reactions to be monitored by opticalmeasurement methods, molecules in the reactions may have to be labeledwith certain optical labels such as fluorescent molecules or otheroptical-detectable molecules. The above thickness of gold (Au) andchromium (Cr) thin films for electrodes is used as an illustrativeexample. The thickness of the thin conductive films can be other values,provided that the resulting electrodes and/or electrode structures canbe used for measuring molecular reactions. Similarly, the thinconductive films can comprise other conductive materials, e.g. platinumover titanium.

Alternatively, optically-transparent electrodes can be used in a deviceof the present invention so that the electrodes can not only monitormolecular reactions (and cell substrate impedance) but also permitoptical evaluation and inspection of sample solutions under an opticalmicroscope of any kind or by other optical detection means. Preferably,the substrate material on which optically-transparent electrodes arefabricated is also optically transparent, for example, a substratematerial can be polycarbonate or polystyrene or polyester or glass. Inaddition, such electrodes and substrates have other importantcapabilities in which the electrodes and substrates can coordinate withother conventional optical detection means for molecules or cells. Thus,the present invention introduces the novel and surprising feature ofsubstrates having optically-transparent electrodes that can allowoptical observation and measurement of solutions whose constitutemolecules can be electrically monitored or measured in the same assayplate, container, or well. Using such optically transparent electrodes,the present invention allows for optical observation of cells whosebehavior can be electrically monitored in the same assay plate,container, or well. For example, cells can be cultured in a chamber or awell or plate comprising a device of the present invention havingoptically-transparent electrodes on the substrate. Cell growth orbehavior can be monitored or assayed based on cell-substrate impedance.During or after electrical monitoring of cells, the still intact cells(either viable or non-viable) can then be used for further molecular,cellular, or biochemical assays. For example, gene expression assays candetermine the identity of genes expressed (and the level of expression)for a particular cell-based assay, enzymatic assays can measure how manycells are viable or non-viable, and apoptosis assays can detect how manycells are in various stages of apoptosis.

Examples of optically transparent electrodes include indium-tin-oxide(ITO). With appropriate thickness of ITO layer, the transmittance oflight through an ITO film electrode can be as high as 98%. In othercases, sufficiently thin conductive films (e.g. a very thin gold film)can be used as optically transparent electrodes.

Ordinarily, the present apparatuses should have a surface areasufficient for attachment or growth of multiple cells. In one example,the present apparatuses can have a surface area sufficient forattachment or growth of at least 10, and more preferably at least 50cells. In another example, each pair of the electrodes or each pair ofelectrode arrays within a present apparatus (e.g. electrode array 110and 120 in FIG. 1) that is connected to an impedance analyzer can have asurface area sufficient for attachment or growth of at least 10, andmore preferably at least 50 cells.

The electrode elements, the electrodes, the electrode structures and theelectrode structure units in the present apparatuses can have anysuitable configurations, surface areas or surface modifications. In oneexample, at least one of the electrode structures can have at least twoelectrode elements. In still another example, the electrode or electrodestructure surface area can be modified with a cell-adhesion promotionmoiety. Any suitable cell-adhesion promotion moieties, such as aself-assembly-monomolecular (SAM) layer (e.g., alkanethiolates on goldand alkylsiloxanes on SiO₂ or SiOx,), a protein (e.g., fibronectin,gelatin, collagen, laminin, proteins that promotes specific ornon-specific cell attachment to the electrode or electrode array surfacearea), a peptide (e.g., poly-L-lysine), a polymer layer and a chargedgroup, can be used in the present apparatuses. In yet another example,the non-electrode or non-electrode-array surface area can be modifiedwith a cell-adhesion repelling moiety, e.g., certain polyethylene glycolformulations.

Preferably, the electrodes, electrode structures, and electrode elementsare configured such that the electrode traces lead from the electrodesat the substrate surface to an edge or end of the substrate, where theycan be connected with a line from an impedance measurement circuit or asignal source. Here the edge or the end of the substrate where theelectrode traces end may correspond to the connection pads on thesubstrate. In preferred aspects of the present invention, the trace ortraces from electrode elements of one electrode structure are insulatedfrom the traces from electrode elements of another electrode structure.In one type of arrangement, electrode traces are located on separateregions of the substrate such that they do not contact each other wheretheir paths cross. In another arrangement, where electrode traces needto cross each other, an insulating material layer can be sandwichedbetween the electrode traces. Fabrication of such apparatuses or devicemay involve multi-layer microfabrication processes.

FIG. 17 shows an example, in which multiple-layered electrode structuresare made on a substrate. Here the electrodes for monitoring molecularreactions on the electrode surfaces (and for monitoring cellattachment/growth) are an array of circle-shaped electrode elements withalternatively connected to two connection pads, which can be operativelyconnected to an impedance measuring circuit. Electrically conductiveconnections among the circle electrode elements within each of the twosets of electrode elements cross each other and are located on differentlayers between which layers an insulating or nonconductive layer existsto achieve electrical isolation between these two sets of circleelectrodes. Similarly, electrode traces connecting the electrodeelements to the connection pads also cross each other and are located ondifferent layers between which layers an insulating layer exists. Otherexamples of multiple layer electrode structures can be found in theliterature, for example in “Positioning and manipulation of cells andmicroparticles using microminiaturized electric filed traps andtraveling waves”, by Fuhr et al, in Sensors and Materials, Vol. 7, No.2, pages 131-146, 1995 and in U.S. Pat. No. 6,448,794, entitled“Apparatus and method for high throughput electrorotation analysis.

The present apparatuses can further comprise one or more impedanceanalyzer connected to one or more connection pads. Electrode candirectly or indirectly connect to a connection pad, where they connectto a line from a signal source. A connection pad is preferably at theedge or perimeter of a device of the present invention, but this is nota requirement of the present invention. The connection betweenelectrodes and a connection pad can optionally be via a connecting paththat can be localized to an end of the substrate. In most uses of anapparatus or device of the present invention, a device will be part of,attached to, or within a plate or a fluid container that can containsample solutions. In these embodiments a connection pad can be situatedon a fluid container or plate comprising one or more fluid containers,preferably near or at one or two ends of the substrate (see, forexample, FIGS. 15, 16).

Depending on the uses, the present apparatuses or devices can be in anysuitable size. In one example, the present devices can have a size to befitted into a single well of a multi-well microplate, e.g., a 6-, 12-,24-, 48-, 96-, 192-, 384-, 768- and 1,536-well plate. In anotherexample, the present apparatuses or devices can have a size compatibleto a multi-well microplate and can have multiple pairs of electrodesspatially arranged according to wells of a multi-well microplate, e.g.,a 6-, 12-, 24-, 48-, 96-, 192-, 384-, 768- and 1,536-well plate. Inanother example, the present devices can have a size compatible to abottomless multi-well microplate and can have multiple pairs ofelectrodes spatially arranged according to wells of a multi-wellmicroplate, e.g., a 6-, 12-, 24-, 48-, 96-, 192-, 384-, 768- and1,536-well plate. The device can be reversibly or irreversibly attachedto a bottomless multi-well microplate such that portions of the deviceform the bottoms of wells. In some embodiments, the electrode area forelectrode structures comprised in a well of these multi-well plates islarger than the diameter of the well. Thus, after the present devicesare bonded or attached to the bottomless multi-well plates, theelectrode area covers the entire surface of the bottom surface of thewell. In other embodiments, not all the wells have electrode structuresfor impedance-based monitoring of molecular reactions. This isparticularly useful when the electrodes are made of opticallynon-transparent materials. For example, in FIG. 16(B), a 96 well platehas 92 wells comprising measuring electrode structures whilst the fourcorner wells are electrode-structure free so that the molecularreactions in these wells can serve as controls, and can be monitoredusing optical microscope or other optical detection means._ Similarly,with the plate in FIG. 16(B), the 92 wells permit the impedance-basedmonitoring of the cells whilst the four corner wells areelectrode-structure free so that the cells grown or cultured in thesewells can serve as controls, and can be monitored using inverted,optical microscope.

The present apparatuses can have any suitable number of electrodes. Forexample, the present apparatuses can have at least four electrodesfabricated to substrate and wherein each of the electrodes has at leastthree neighboring electrodes and the electrode impedance is measuredbetween one electrode and its at least three neighboring electrodes.Preferably, each of the electrodes has a surface area sufficient forattachment or growth of at least 10 cells.

In one embodiment, the electrodes or electrode arrays of the presentapparatuses can comprise a built-inapplication-specific-integrated-circuit (ASIC). Preferably, the ASICcomprises a switching circuit, an impedance measurement circuit and apower source.

In another embodiment, the present apparatuses can comprise an impedancemeasurement circuit. The impedance measurement circuit is equivalent toan impedance analyzer that can measure the impedance between or amongelectrodes in the apparatuses of the present invention. Preferably, thepresent apparatuses can further comprise a switching circuit.

In still another embodiment, at least one pair of the electrodes or onepair of electrode arrays of the present apparatuses is individuallyaddressed in terms of connecting to an impedance analyzer or animpedance measurement circuit. Impedances are measured between such apair of the electrodes or such a pair of electrode structures with orwithout molecular reactions occurring on the surfaces of theelectrode(s) or electrode structure(s). “Individually addressed” meansthat the electrode impedance can directly be connected to such a pair ofelectrodes or electrode structures.

In yet another embodiment, the sensor areas comprising electrodes orelectrode structures or arrays of the present apparatuses occupy atleast 1% of the entire surface of the apparatus. In another embodiment,the sensor areas of the present apparatuses occupy 2%, 5%, 10%, 30%,50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or even 100% of the entire surface of theapparatuses exposed to sample solutions during an assay that uses theapparatuses.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a multi-wellmicroplate for monitoring molecular reactions, which microplatecomprises a plurality of wells, at least one of the wells comprising anabove-described device for monitoring molecular reactions.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to anabove-described apparatus for impedance-based monitoring of cellbehavior, which comprises at least 10 cells, and preferably at least 50cells that are attached or grown on its surface.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a multi-wellmicroplate for impedance-based monitoring of cell behavior, whichmicroplate comprises a plurality of wells, at least one of the wellscomprising an above-described device for monitoring cell-substrateimpedance.

One well, multiple wells or all the wells of the present microplate canhave one or more above-described device(s) for monitoring molecularreactions or cell behaviors. In one example, at least one of the wellscomprises one above-described apparatus for monitoring molecularreactions (or cell behavior).

The electrodes or electrode structures comprised in the presentmicroplate can be arranged in any suitable ways. In one example, atleast one pair of the electrodes or one pair of electrode structures ofat least one device is individually addressed in terms of connecting toan impedance analyzer or an impedance measurement circuit. In anotherexample, the electrodes or electrode arrays of the apparatus(es) arearranged in a row-column configuration. Such multi-well microplate canbe connected to a switching circuit or further comprise a switchingcircuit, e.g., an electronic-switch circuit for each well. The switchingcircuit can also be arranged in a row-column configuration. In stillanother example, at least one of the electrodes or electrode structuresfrom at least two wells can share common electrical connection pad(s)located on the microplate of the present invention. In yet anotherexample, the connection pads in the apparatus(es) can be connected to aflex circuit. In this case, the flex circuit is a circuit board forelectrical connection between an impedance measurement circuit orimpedance analyzer to connection pads on the present microplate or thepresent apparatuses for monitoring molecular reactions and formonitoring cell behaviour. The flex circuit is made of flexiblematerials (e.g. a flex circuit is made of a thin copper layer sandwichedbetween two polyimide layers). The sensor area within a well of amicroplate can cover any suitable percentage of the bottom surface areaof the microplate well. For example, the sensor area comprisingelectrode elements, electrodes or electrode arrays can occupy at least1% of the entire bottom surface of the microplate well. Preferably, thesensor area can occupy at least 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%,80%, 90%, 95%, 99% or 100% of the entire bottom surface of themicroplate well.

The present multi-well microplate can have any suitable number of wells,e.g., 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, 384, 768 and 1,536 wells. To producesensor electrodes in a multiwell plate configuration, various assemblyapproaches can be utilized.

In one approach, a bottomless plate can be bonded to electrodes orelectrode structures fabricated on a non-conducting substrate such asglass or plastic. Taking an example of 96 well plates, the substrate canbe a single piece of plastic or glass on which all electrode structurescan be fabricated. In another example, the substrate can be assembledfrom multiple separated substrates (e.g., 2 substrates eachcorresponding to total 48 wells, 3 substrates each corresponding to 32wells, 4 substrates each corresponding to 24 wells, 6 substrates eachcorresponding to 16 wells, 8 substrates each corresponding to 12 wells,12 substrates each corresponding to 8 wells, etc). The substratecomprising electrode structures to be assembled to 96 well configurationcan either same types of substrates or dissimilar types of plates.Dissimilar types of the substrates refer to that the substrates can bedifferent in size and/or different in number of electrode structures.

The following is an exemplary embodiment in which a 96× well plate isassembled by using bottomless plates bonded to six substrates on whichmicroelectrodes are fabricated or incorporated. Each of six substratesmay comprise up to 16 different electrode structures, each of whichcorrespond to one of the 16 wells. FIG. 15A shows an individualsubstrate plate, on which 16 electrode structure units can be fabricatedand incorporated. FIG. 15B shows an individual substrate plate, on which15 electrode structure units can be fabricated and incorporated. Theelectrode structures on the substrates (e.g. a plastic substrate, aglass substrate) may be fabricated using various methods including, suchas, photolithography method and laser ablation method. In one exemplaryembodiment, the substrate dimension may be about 77.2 mm by 17.75 mm.The electrode structures are of thin gold film (˜0.2 micron thick) overa thin Cr film (˜0.03 micron thick). Electrode geometry may be a circleon line electrode configuration with dimension of 30/80/90 (microns) forelectrode line width, electrode line gap and circle diameter) or othergeometry.

Assembly of such electrode-containing substrates to a plastic,bottomless plate can be achieved by using liquid type of adhesive, PSA(pressure sensitive adhesive), or plastic ultrasonic welding, or anyother suitable bonding methods.

For liquid adhesive to be used to assemble the electrode-containingsubstrate to the bottomless multi-well plate (or simply, well plate),the adhesive can be accurately dispensed on the bottom side around eachwell with, for example, an automatic liquid dispensing machine. In thisoperation for dispensing the liquid adhesive, the well plate may bepositioned upside down. Then each substrate comprising up to 16electrode structure units can be accurately positioned on thebottom-less well plate by, for example, a pick-and-place machine. Afterthe liquid adhesive is cured, the substrates are bonded to thebottomless well plate. Another method for bonding these plates usingliquid adhesive may take the following steps: (a) accurately positioningthe electrode-containing substrates on the well plates with a smalldistance (e.g. 100 micron) between them; (b) applying liquid adhesivewith appropriate viscosity to the edge of the electrode-containingsubstrates, with capillary force, the liquid adhesive may beautomatically moved into the space between the electrode-containingsubstrates and well plate. The liquid adhesives filled in the gapbetween the electrode-containing substrate and the well plate may thenbe cured.

For the pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) approach, the double-sidedadhesive with supporting liners on both sides is first cut with holesthat correspond to the well bottom size of the multi-well, bottomlessmicroplate. Then, after peeling off the liner on one side of the PSA,the PSA is accurately positioned over and pressed against thebottom-side of the multi-well plate. The other liner can be removed. Theindividual electrode-containing substrates can be positioned withaligning electrodes or electrode structures to individual wells in themulti-well plate.

FIGS. 16(A) and 16(B) show a bottom view of 96-well plates with sixelectrode-containing devices assembled on the bottom. For FIG. 16(A),each device has 16× electrode-structure units with connection padslocated on the edges of the apparatus (attachment of the connection padsat opposing ends of the apparatus is preferred). For FIG. 16(B), each ofthe middle four devices has 16× electrode-structure units withconnection pads located on the edges of the device. The two side deviceshave 14× electrode-structure units with connection pads also located onthe edges of the device. For clarity, the details of electrodestructures and electrical connection between the connection pads andelectrode structures are not shown in these figures.

Electronic connection from such multi-well plates to external impedanceanalyzer present a significant challenge because of limited space on thebottom side of these plates. The electrode structures are facing upwardsin operation. In one exemplary embodiment for connecting electrodestructures to external impedance analyzers, the electronic connectionpads are located at the ends of the electrode-containing substrates(see, for example, FIGS. 12A and 12B). Because of very limited spacesavailable along the bottom edges of the multi-well plate, connectorsused in the electronics industry cannot be directly used to suchdevices. In addition, because of the frame of the multi-well plate,there may not be space available for electronic connections from the topside to the connection pads at the ends of the electrode-containingsubstrates. For this reason, specific design is required for connectingthe up-facing the connection pads to become bottom-facing. In oneapproach, a small PCB board (see FIG. 13A) with straight-line conductorlines is down-facing and one end of all the conductor lines isconductively-bonded to the connection pads (see FIGS. 13B and 13C). Thenthe other end of the conductor lines can be accessed from the bottom.For example, a long, conductive needle (e.g. a POGO pin, details may befound in website such as http://www.emulation.com/pogo/ ) pin can beused (see FIG. 13C). FIG. 16 shows a schematic drawing of a POGO-pinholder structure where POGO pins can contact-connect to the conductorlines of small PCB board shown in FIGS. 13(A) and 13(C). In anotherapproach, a Flex circuit approach may also be used. In this case, oneend of the flex circuit can have metal rectangular wires spaced at thecorresponding distances and can be conductively bonded to the edge ofthe plate (FIG. 14A). The Flex circuit can be wrapped around the edgesto the bottom side of the sensor plate (FIGS. 14B and 14C). The otherend of the flex jumper is also metal line and can be accessed by needlestructured conductors (FIG. 14C). The flex circuit shown in FIG. 14C isa certain number of metal wires (10 wires in FIG. 14C) assembled to aplastic sheet. In similar approach (FIGS. 14D, 14E), metal wires (i.e.,electrical connection pins) in the form of shorting clip (metal clips)can be used for similar purpose of connecting electrode pads on the topsurface of the substrate to the bottom surface side. Details of anexemplary shorting clips can be found inhttp://www.nasinterplex.com/short_clips/short_set.html. In yet anotherapproach, wire bonding could be used to connect the connection padslocated on the electrode-containing substrate to a small PCB board. ThePCB board has conductive vias on it so that the electrical connectionscan be made to the PCB board from bottom side.

In another exemplary embodiment, the connection pads are connected toconductive lines either along the edge of the wells, or between thewells, to the top side of the bottom-less plate. Then, the electronicconnections can be performed from the top side.

A preferred configuration for the device of the invention is one inwhich the connection pads are at opposing ends of the apparatussubstrate. All traces extending from each electrode array at either endthereof form electrically conducting conduits to the connection padswithout any intersection between any individual trace. FIGS. 4, 12A and12B exemplifies the manner in which traces may be drawn from eachelectrode array to a connection pad.

In another exemplary embodiment, a fabrication or manufacturing methodis used to produce holes at certain locations of the substrate. Theseholes are located at the positions where electronic connections to theelectrode structures can be made. The holes can be gold-plated duringthe thin film deposition of the substrates. After the electrodestructures are fabricated and patterned on the substrate and the holeson the substrates can be further filled with conductive pastes. Afterthe electrode-containing substrate is attached and bonded to amulti-well plate, the electronic connection to an impedance measuringcircuit or instrument can be achieved from the bottom side of themulti-well plate at the positions corresponding toconductive-paste-filled holes.

In another approach, bottom-less multi-well plates can be bound to thesubstrate that has a metal film layer, or microtiter or other plateshaving bottoms can be gold-deposited with a layer of metal on the bottomsurfaces of the wells. Laser ablation may then be used to directlypattern electrode structures. The electronic connections to theelectrode structures on these multi-well plates can use variousconnection methods described above.

In an example, a 16×-unit device can be constructed on a glass substrateusing photolithography method. The final glass substrate dimension is 75mm by 22 mm with gold thickness ˜0.2 micron and Cr thickness ˜0.03micron. Different electrode geometry may be used with the 16×-unitdevice arranged in a 2 row by 8 column configuration. Electrodeconnection pads can be located along the longer edges of the substrate.

To construct a measurement device, a bottom-less 16× plastic well stripcan be constructed with dimensions suitable for a 16× device. Each wellis coned shaped so that the top diameter is about 6.5 mm whilst thebottom diameter is 5 mm. The 5 mm diameter at the bottom side ensuresthat sufficient spaces are left for the electronic connection pads,which can be connected to external impedance analyzers. The bottom sideof the plastic well strip comprises a continuous channel which isconnected to an opening port in the middle of 2 by 8 plastic wells. Thebottom side of the plastic well strip is sufficiently flat with respectto the 16× glass slide device.

In order to bond the 16× plastic well strip to 16×-unit substrate, 16×well strip can be tightly secured over the 16×-unit substrate. Abiocompatible, silicone based adhesive can be used to inject into theport in the plastic strip. The viscous adhesive can move through thechannel on the bottom side of the plastic strip. After the adhesive iscured, the plastic strip is tightly bond to the 16× device. Anotherapproach to bond the 16× plastic well strip to 16×-unit substrate is byusing double-sided adhesives (for example, pressure sensitiveadhesives). In this approach, the adhesive is processed or machined sothat it has 16 holes that are located at corresponding positions to the16 electrode units on the 16× substrate or to the 16 plastic wells onthe 16× plastic well strip. The diameter of the 16 holes on theadhesives is same as, or similar to, the diameter of the wells on theplastic strip. In assembly, the supporting liners on one side of theadhesive is peeled off so that the adhesive is aligned to and bond tothe plastic well strips with each hole on the adhesive corresponding toeach well on the plastic strip. After that, the other side of theadhesive is also peeled off from the adhesive so that the 16× substratecan now be aligned and bond to the adhesive that is bonded to theplastic well strip.

In yet another aspect of the present invention, the present invention isdirected to a method of making multi-well plates suitable for molecularassays based on electric impedance detection or for cell electroporationbased on electrodes fabricated on substrates or for electricimpedance-based monitoring of cell adhesion, cell growth or cellbiological states. The method of the present invention comprises, (1)providing a non-conducting substrate, (2) depositing electric conductivefilms on said substrate, (3) patterning of electrically conductive filmsto make electrodes or electrode structures by using laser ablation ofconductive film, (4) assembling the thin-film patterned substrates tobottomless multi-well plates to form electrode-containing multi-wellplates. In a preferred embodiment of the methods of the presentinvention, the substrates are made of materials selected from glass,polymer, plastics, ceramics, fiber glass, or a combination of the above.The substrate can be cleaned by suitable procedures to be ready fordeposition of electrical conductive thin films. Many laboratoryprocedure for cleaning glass, silicon wafer, plastic-ware can be usedfor cleaning of the substrate. In some cases, mechanical scrubbing ofthe substrate surfaces may be necessary to obtain clean-substrates.

In a preferred embodiment of the present methods, electric conductivefilms to be deposited on said substrates can be metal films, includinggold, chromium, nickel, copper, platinum, aluminum, tungsten and others.It is possible to have two or more than two metal types being used asthe thin conductive films. For example, chromium film can be used as anadhesion layer on glass or plastic substrate and gold or platinum filmcan be further deposited on the adhesion layer. Other electricalconductive films can also be used. For example, indium-tin-oxide can beused. In another example, electrically conductive polymer films can alsobe used. Electrically conductive films can be deposited by variousmethods such as thermal evaporation, electron-beam evaporation,sputtering, depending on the substrate materials and on the type ofconductive films to be generated. Electrically conductive films can bedifferent thickness, depending on conductivity of the electricalconductive film and on required conductance or resistance. The thicknessof electrically conductive films can be as thin as less than 100nanometer to as thick as over 1 micron.

In a preferred embodiment of the present methods, laser ablation maskswill be used to pattern-generate required electrodes. Geometry ofpatterns on the laser ablation masks will be the same as the geometry ofthe electrodes or electrode structures to be made on the substrate. Itis possible to have the geometry of patterns of the laser ablation masksbeing the same size as that of the electrodes or electrode structures tobe generated. It is also possible to have the geometry of patterns ofthe laser ablation masks having larger sizes that that of the electrodesor electrode structures to be generated: For example, a 2×, or 3× mask,i.e., the patterns on the mask being twice or three times of that of theelectrodes or electrode structures to be made, can be used. In usinglaser ablation mask for thin film patterning of the electrodes, the maskis placed between the thin film coated substrates on which the thin filmpatterning is taking place and laser source with appropriate opticalpaths.

The laser source will be a beam having a finite geometry (for example,200 micron wide by 2 mm long) over which the intensity of the laser beamis relatively uniform. This laser beam scans over the mask and reachesthe substrate through appropriate optical paths (for example, includinglenses). The laser beam will ablate the thin conductive film at regionscorresponding to the regions on the masks where the laser beam istransparent. The laser beam will be blocked at thin conductive filmregions corresponding to the regions on the masks where the laser beamis not transparent or is blocked. While other lasers can be used forlaser ablation of thin conductive films, UV excimer laser is particularsuitable for patterning of thin metal films on either glass or polymersubstrates. For example, excimer laser at 193 m and 248 nm can be used.

Appropriate energy intensity is required for ablating thin conductivefilms. For example, an energy intensity of 0.5-1.5 J/cm² can be used toablate thin gold films up to 0.2 micron thick on a glass substrate (witha 0.0075 micron-0.03 micron thick chromium seeding layer). Those who areskilled in laser ablation of thin films on substrates can readilydetermine appropriate laser wave length, energy intensity (fluence),laser pulse duration and laser pulse number needed for ablating offdifferent thin films. Cited here are following articles or publicationsprovides basic information for laser ablation of thin films onsubstrates: “Excimer laser ablation of thin gold films on a quartzcrystal microbalance at various argon background pressures”, by Zhang,X., S. S. Chu, J. R. Ho, C. P. Grigoropoulos, in Appl. Phys. A: MaterialScience & Processing, volume 64, pp 545-552, 1997; “Metal film removaland patterning using a XeCl laser”, by Andrew J. E., Dyer P. E.,Greenough R. D. and Key P. H., in Appl. Phys. Letter, Vol. 43 (11), pp1076-1078, 1983; “Excimer laser processing of thin metallic films ondielectric substrates”, by Sowada U., Kahlert H.-J., and Basting D., inSPIE (High Power Lasers: Sources, Laser-Material Interactions, HighExcitations, and Fast Dynamics), vol. 801, pp 163-167, 1984.

The process parameters for laser ablation of thin gold/chromium film wewere using are as follows: (1) a 3× mask; (2) laser energy intensitybetween 0.5 and 1 J/cm² and laser wavelength at 248 nm; (3) synchronizedmotion of the mask and the substrate with the substrate moving at speedup to 10 mm/sec. To ensure thorough removal of the gold film atelectrode gaps, more than one laser ablations were used.

When laser ablation is used to pattern thin films of conductivematerials on substrates for making electrodes or electrode structures ofthe devices of the present invention, because of large areas (forexample, larger than 0.3 mm², 1 mm², even 5 mm², or even 20 mm²) ofelectrodes (or electrode structures) of the devices of the presentinvention and because of relative fine electrode structures (forexample, electrode elements having 100 micron width and 20 micron gapbetween them), the laser-ablated conductive materials may come back tothe surfaces of the substrates and cause a re-deposition problem on thepatterned substrate, affecting the quality of thin-film patternedsubstrates.

The quality issues here include how clean the surface of the substrateswill be after processing, how reproducible the laser ablation processfor patterning is, would there be re-deposits of ablated materials onthe surface of conductive electrodes and would there be re-deposits ofablated materials on the surfaces at the gaps between the electrodes.The re-deposits would have to be cleaned or removed in order for theelectrodes in the processed devices to perform properly in electricimpedance measurements or to perform re-producibly from one device toanother device.

An important aspect of the present invention includes how the“re-deposit problems” can be addressed. In one invented approach, a thin“sacrificial” film of material that can be readily removed by, forexample, some solvents like water, or acetone is deposited or coated onthe substrate prior to the laser ablation process. This sacrificial filmpreferably would have to be thin and uniform and can be readily removedby laser ablation process. The thickness of the sacrificial film may beany thickness. However, preferably, the sacrificial film thickness isless than 5 micron, or less than 1 micron, or less than 0.1 micron. Thesacrificial films can be photoresist materials or deposits from a thicksoap solution. So the laser ablation process is performed with thissacrificial film on the substrates. After laser patterning, thesubstrates will be subjected to a simple step to remove the sacrificialfilm by using some solvents. Use of sacrificial films would remove there-deposition problems occurring on the patterned electrode surfaces. Inanother invented approach, after laser ablation of thin conductivefilms, the laser-processed substrates can be subjected to a thoroughcleaning procedure to remove the re-deposits.

For example, the laser-processed substrates can be placed into cleaningsolutions, for example, acid (as an example, 1 M HCl) and/or base (as anexample 1 M NaOH) solution, for a period of time (for example, 1 hour, 3hours, 5 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, or even 24 hours). The solution maybe agitated when the laser processed substrates are placed inside.Agitation can be provided by ultrasonic waves or simply mechanicalstirring bars. Some re-deposits can be removed by these processes. Inanother example of cleaning the laser processed substrates, thesubstrates can be cleaned by using mechanical scrubbing on theirsurfaces. Such scrubbing can be done with a cotton ball (or Q-tip, or aswab) soaked with water, or acid, or other solutions. In yet anotherexample of cleaning the laser processed substrates, one could use thecombination of the cleaning methods described in the above two examplesof cleaning solutions and mechanical scrubbing (for example, with aQ-tip, or a swab).

In one exemplary embodiment, assembling the thin-film patternedsubstrates to bottomless multi-well plates to form electrode-containingmulti-well plates can utilize double-sided pressure sensitive adhesives.In another embodiment, assembling the thin-film patterned substrates tobottomless multi-well plates can make use of liquid adhesives. Exemplaryapproaches of bonding the thin-film patterned substrates to bottomlessmulti-well plates by using liquid adhesive or double-sided pressuresensitive adhesives have been descried above.

In less preferred embodiments, other methods for forming electrodes onthe substrates of the invention may be employed. For example, electrodeelements, electrodes or electrode structures can be fabricated to thesame side of the nonconductive substrate by any suitable methods, e.g.,photolithography. Electrodes or electrode elements within an electrodearray can be fabricated onto the substrate by suitable microfabricationor micromachining methods (see, for example, “Lithography”, inFundamentals of Microfabrication, 1997, Chapter 1, pp 1-50, edited byMarc Madou, CRC Press). One typical method is to use a photolithographymethod for making such electrodes. As a non-limiting example, aphotolithography method to produce an electrode array on a solidsubstrate is as follows. The substrate may be any suitable material,e.g. glass. The process starts with a clean glass that is firstdeposited with a thin, adhesion layer of chromium or titanium (e.g. 10nm) and followed by a deposition of 100-200 nm thick gold. Thedeposition may be achieved using a vacuum evaporation. Photoresist isthen spin-coated on to the gold film to micron thickness and thenexposed to UV light through a mask containing an image of a requiredelectrode array. The exposed photoresist is developed using photoresistdeveloper, and the gold and chrome layers are etched subsequently withKI/I₂ and K₃Fe(CN)₆/NaOH, respectively. Masks are produced commerciallyusing electron-beam writing techniques on ultra-high resolution plates.

Other techniques can also be used for fabricating the electrodes onsubstrates. For example, an electrode pattern can be made using laserablation. For laser ablation, one side of the substrate is firstdeposited with a thin layer metal film (for example, a gold film ofabout 0.2 μm over a seeding Cr layer of 25 nm) using methods such asvapor deposition and/or sputtering. The thin metal film is then exposedto a laser (e.g., an excimer laser at 248 nm) at appropriate intensitythrough a mask containing an image of required electrode array. At theregions where the mask is “transparent” to the laser, the laser hits onand interacts with the metal film and the metal film is ablated off fromthe substrate. Since the substrate (e.g. glass or plastics) reactsdifferently with the laser from the metal film, it is possible to chooseappropriate laser condition (wave length, intensity, pulse width) sothat the laser can ablate the metal film and has no effect or minimaleffect on the substrate. At the regions where the mask is “blocking” thelaser, the metal films remain on the substrate. Masks are producedcommercially using electron-beam writing techniques on ultra-highresolution plates. Those who are skilled in laser ablation and thin filmpatterning with laser ablation can readily choose appropriate procedureand laser wave length, intensity, masks for producing electrodes on thepolymer membranes.

There are other methods of microfabrication or micromachining that canbe used for fabricating electrode or electrode elements on differentsubstrates. For example, the methods such as screen-printing and themethods used for making printed circuits board (PCB) could also be usedfor making electrodes or electrode structures on various substrates.Those who are skilled in microfabrication and micromachining can readilychoose appropriate fabrication methods according to required substratematerial and electrode material, and required geometry resolution forelectrodes or electrode elements.

In yet another exemplary embodiment of the device of the presentinvention, device takes the form of a microelectrode strip or electrodestrip. Examples of such electrode strips or microelectrode strips areshown in FIGS. 11 and 18. In one embodiment of such electrode strips, arectangular shaped, non-conducting substrate is used as the strip onwhich microelectrode structure units are fabricated or incorporated. Thenon-limiting examples of the non-conducting substrate strips includepolymer membrane, glass, plastic sheets, ceramics,insulator-on-semiconductor, fiber glass (like those for manufacturingprinted-circuits-board). Electrode structure units having differentgeometries can be fabricated or made on the substrate strip by anysuitable microfabrication, micromachining, or other methods.Non-limiting examples of electrode geometries include interdigitatedelectrodes, circle-on-line electrodes, diamond-on-line electrodes,castellated electrodes, or sinusoidal electrodes. Characteristicdimensions of these electrode geometries may vary from as small as lessthan 5 micron, or less than 10 micron, to as large as over 200 micron,over 500 micron, over 1 mm. The characteristic dimensions of theelectrode geometries refer to the smallest width of the electrodeelements, or smallest gaps between the adjacent electrode elements, orsize of a repeating feature on the electrode geometries. Alternatively,these dimensions can be described in terms of electrode width andelectrode gaps. Thus, both electrode widths and electrode gaps can varyfrom as small as less than 5 micron, or less than 10 micron, to as largeas over 200 micron, over 500 micron, over 1 mm.

The electrode strip (or microelectrode strip) can be of any geometry forthe present invention. One exemplary geometry for the electrode stripsis rectangular shape—having the width of the strip between less than 50micron to over 10 mm, and having the length of the strip between lessthan 60 micron to over 15 mm. For example, an electrode strips may havea geometry having a width of 200 micron and a length of 20 mm. A singlemicroelectrode strip may have two electrodes serving as a measurementunit, or multiple such two-electrodes serving as multiple measurementunits, or a single electrode structure unit as a measurement unit, ormultiple electrode structure units serving as multiple electrodestructure units. In one exemplary embodiment, when multiple electrodestructure units are fabricated on a single microelectrode strip, theseelectrode structure units are positioned along the length direction ofthe strip. The electrode structure units may be of squared-shape, orrectangular-shape, or circle shapes. Each of electrode structure unitsmay occupy size from less than 50 micron by 50 micron, to larger than 2mm×2 mm. In the example embodiment shown in FIG. 18, the electrode stripcomprises 8 measurement units, each of which is a separate electrodestructure unit that can be used for performing the measurement ofmolecular assay reaction. In this example, there are electricalconnections coming out from each electrode structure units. It isbetween these two electrical connections that the impedance between theelectrode structures within each electrode structure unit is measured.These two electrical connections are then connected to the connectionpads located on the edges of the electrode strip. The external impedanceanalyzer or impedance measuring circuits are then used to connect theseconnection pads for the measurement of electrical impedance. Surfaces ofelectrode structure units may be coated or covered with capturingmolecules, or anchoring molecules. Different capturing or anchoringmolecules may be used for surfaces of different electrode structureunits. In using such electrode strips, plastic housings having multipleopenings may be used to bind to the electrode strips to form “electrodestrip unit” or “electrode strip test unit” by using various bindingmethods including liquid adhesives, adhesive tapes (such as double-sidedpressure sensitive adhesives). Each opening in the plastic housing islocated at a position corresponding to a measurement unit (i.e.electrode structure unit) and serves as a measurement well for liquidsamples. After binding the electrode strips to the plastic housings,sample solutions can be applied to each well for molecular assays. Inanother embodiment for using such electrode strips, each opening inplastic housing may enclose two or more measurement units.

There are other approaches for using the electrode strips. In oneapproach, porous materials, which allows liquid samples to move through,may be placed onto the electrode strips and then plastic housings areused to bind to the electrode strips and to enclose the porousmaterials. Plastic housings may have one or more openings. Each openingwould enclose at least one measurement unit. Since porous materialsallow liquid sample to move through, adding liquid sample into theporous materials would result in the introduction of sample to allregions of the electrode strip.

In yet another aspect of the present invention, the present invention isdirected to a method of obtaining electrode strip unit (or electrodestrip test unit) for molecular assays based on electric impedancedetection or for cell electroporation based on electrodes or electrodestructures fabricated on the strips or for electric impedance-basedmonitoring of cell adhesion, cell growth or cell biological states. Themethod of the present invention comprises, (1) providing anon-conducting substrate, (2) depositing electric conductive films onsaid substrate, (3) patterning of electrically conductive films to makeelectrodes or electrode structures by using laser ablation of conductivefilm to obtain thin-film patterned substrate, (4) optionally, cuttingthin-film patterned substrates into electrode strips of certaingeometry, or alternatively, said thin-film patterned substrate is usedas an electrode strip, (5) assembling said electrode strip to a plastichousing that contains at least one opening to form an electrode stripunit, wherein said at least one opening is aligned with electrodes orelectrode structures on the electrode strip. In a preferred embodimentof the methods of the present invention, the substrates are made ofmaterials selected from polymer, plastics, glass, ceramics, fiber glass,or a combination of the above. The substrate can be cleaned by suitableprocedures to be ready for deposition of electrical conductive thinfilms. Many laboratory procedure for cleaning glass, silicon wafer,plastic-ware can be used for cleaning of the substrate. In some cases,mechanical scrubbing of the substrate surfaces may be necessary toobtain clean-substrates.

In a preferred embodiment of the present methods, electric conductivefilms to be deposited on said substrates for making electrode strips arethe-same as or similar to those films suitable for making multi-wellpaltes described above. Similarly, laser ablation method is thepreferred approach for thin film patterning to fabricate requiredmicroelectrodes.

Thin-film patterned substrates may be cut into strips or electrodestrips with appropriate or required geometry and dimension. For example,a thin-film patterned substrate may be a rectangular shape of 20 mm by30 mm. With electrodes or electrode structures properly arranged on thesubstrate after thin-film patterning, the substrate can be cut into 15electrode strips, each of which having 2 mm by 20 mm dimension andhaving appropriate electrodes or electrode structures that can be used.

In one exemplary embodiment, assembling an electrode strip to a plastichousing to form an electrode strip unit or electrode strip test unit canutilize double-sided pressure sensitive adhesives. In anotherembodiment, assembling an electrode strip to a plastic housing to forman electrode strip unit or electrode strip test unit can make use ofliquid adhesives. Exemplary approaches of bonding the thin-filmpatterned substrates to bottomless multi-well plates by using liquidadhesive or double-sided pressure sensitive adhesives have been descriedabove.

In preferred embodiments of system of the present invention, theelectrodes comprised in a device, apparatus or the system connect to animpedance analyzer or impedance measuring circuit at least twoconnection pads. Electrodes can directly or indirectly connect to aconnection pad, where they connect to lines from impedance measuringcircuit or impedance analyzer. A connection pad is preferably at theedge or perimeter of a device or apparatus of the present invention, butthis is not a requirement of the present invention. The connectionbetween electrodes and a connection pad can optionally be via aconnecting path that can be localized to the edge of the device. In mostuses of a device of the present invention, a device will be part of anapparatus and attached to, or within a plate or a fluid container thatcan contain solution samples. In these embodiments a connection pad canbe situated on a fluid container or plate comprising one or more fluidcontainers, preferably near or at the edge or perimeter of a device.

In preferred embodiments of the present invention, a system thatcomprises a device of the present invention also includes interfaceelectronics, including impedance measurement circuit and switches (e.g.electronic switches), to control and switch the impedance measurementcircuits to different electrode structure units of the apparatuses ofthe present invention. Preferably, a system of the present inventionalso includes a computer having software programs that can enablereal-time measurement or monitoring of impedance between the electrodesor electrode structures of the apparatuses of the present invention. Themeasured impedance data can be automatically analyzed and processed toderive appropriate parameters (e.g. molecular reaction index, or cellnumber index) and displayed on a monitor.

Preferably, the software program has one or more of the followingfunctions: (1) electronically switching for connecting impedancemeasuring circuit (or analyzer) to one of multiple electrode units(electrode structure units) of the present apparatuses; (2) controllingimpedance measurement circuit (or analyzer) for measurement of impedancebetween or among electrodes or electrode structures at one or multiplefrequencies; (3) processing the acquired impedance data to deriveappropriate biologically relevant parameters (e.g., molecular reactionindex, or cell number index); (4) displaying the results on a monitor orstoring results; (5) automatically performing above functions 1 through4 at regular or irregular time intervals.

Methods for Using the Devices of the Invention

The present device and multi-well microplate can be used to measureimpedance at a physiological ion concentration or at a non-physiologicalion concentration. Further, the device and multi-well microplate can beused for electroporation of cells suspended in the wells or attached tothe surfaces of the wells containing electrodes or electrode structures.Electroporation protocols with appropriate voltage amplitude, waveform,time duration, number of pulses can be used so that voltage pluses areapplied to the electrodes or electrode structure units to generateelectric field sufficient strong to electroporate the membrane of cells.While the present devices or microplates can be used for electroporatingboth suspension cells and adherent cells, the present devices ormicroplates are particular suited for electroporating adherent cells.

The methods for electroporating adherent cells using the present deviceor multi-well microplates comprise the following, (1) providing anabove-described multi-well microplate, at least one well of whichmicroplate contains electrodes or electrode structure units on thebottom surface, (2) attaching or growing cells in theelectrodes-containing wells, (3) applying electrical voltages pulses tothe electrodes to result in electroporation of the membrane of the cellsadhered to the bottom surface of the wells. The methods forelectroporating suspension cells using the present device or multi-wellmicroplates comprise the following, (1) providing an above-describedmulti-well microplate, at least one well of which microplate containselectrodes or electrode structure units on the bottom surface, (2)adding the cells in the electrodes-containing wells, (3) applyingelectrical voltages pulses to the electrodes to result inelectroporation of the membrane of the cells in the wells.Electroporation conditions with appropriate voltage amplitude, waveform,time duration and number of pulses can be determined with experimentsfor a good electroporation efficiency and a number of articles andpublication also provides general guideline and possible specificconditions for electroporations. Some of these publications are citedhere, including, “Cell electropermeabilization: a new tool forbiochemical and pharmalogical studies”, by Orlowski, S. and M. Lluis, inBiochim, Biophys. Acta, Vol: 1154, pp 51-63, 1993; “Electroporation ofcell membranes”, by Tsong, T. Y., Biophys. J. Volume 60: pp 297-306,1990; “Electroporation of adherent cells in situ.”, by Raptis, L. and K.L. Firth in DNA Cell Biology, Vol. 9, pp 615-621, 1990; “Electroporationof adherent cells in situ for the introduction of nonpermeantmolecules”, by Raptis L H, Firth K L, Brownell H L, Todd A, Simon W C,Bennett B M, MacKenzie L W, Zannis-Hadjopoulos M., in Methods MolecularBiology, Vol. 48, pp 93-113, 1995; “Recovery of Adherent cells after insitu electroporation monitored electrically”, by Wegner J., Keese C. R.,Giaver I., in Bio Techniques, Vol. 33, pp 348-357, 2002.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method formonitoring target molecules, which method comprises: a) providing anabove-described devices or multi-well microplate for monitoringmolecular reactions; b) adding sample solution comprising targetmolecules or suspected of comprising target molecules to said device; c)incubating sample in the device to allow the capture of target moleculesto capture molecules; and d) monitoring a change of impedance between oramong the electrodes to monitor the presence or quantity of targetmolecules in a solution.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method forassaying molecules in a sample solution, which method comprises: a)providing a device comprising: 1) a non-conducting substrate, 2) atleast two electrodes fabricated to the same side of the substrate, 3) atleast two connection pads on said substrate, wherein said at least twoelectrodes are connected respectively to said at least two connectionpads; b) adding sample solution comprising target molecules to saiddevice; c) incubating the sample solution in the device to allow targetmolecules to be bound to the electrode surfaces; d) adding reportingmolecules in a solution to the device; e) incubating the solution instep d) in the device to allow the reporting molecules to bind to thetarget molecules; f) monitoring a change of impedance between or amongthe electrodes to monitor the presence or quantity of target moleculesin a solution.

The present methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters thatare related to molecular reactions occurring on the electrode surfaces.For example, the present methods can further comprise determining theamount or number of target molecules that are present in a samplesolution.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method formonitoring cell attachment or growth, which method comprises: a)providing an above-described apparatus or multi-well microplate formonitoring cell-substrate impedance; b) attaching or growing cells to oron the surface of said apparatus or in a well of said multi-wellmicroplate; and c) monitoring impedance between or among the electrodesor electrode arrays to monitor said cell attachment or growth on saidapparatus or multi-well microplate.

The present methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters thatare related to cell attachment or growth. For example, the presentmethods can further comprise determining the amount or number of cellsthat are attached to or grown on the apparatus or multi-well microplatefrom the monitored impedance.

The present methods can be used to determine whether a test compound canmodulate, i.e., increase or decrease, cell attachment or growth, or toscreen for such a modulator. For example, the present methods can beconducted wherein the cell attachment or growth is monitored in thepresence and absence of a test compound and the method is used todetermine whether said test compound modulates attachment or growth ofthe cells. Generally, if a presence of a test compound results inincreased cell attachment or growth, such a compound is considered as acell attachment or growth stimulator. Conversely, if a presence of atest compound results in decreased cell attachment or growth, such acompound is considered as a cell attachment or growth inhibitor.

The present methods can be used to monitor viable cell attachment orgrowth. For example, the present methods can be conducted wherein onlyviable cells can attach to or grow on the surface of the apparatus or ina well of the multi-well microplate of the present invention, and themethod is used to monitor the cell attachment or growth of viable ordetachment of non-viable cells. The present methods can further comprisedetermining the amount or number of viable or non-viable cells. Thepresent methods can also be conducted wherein the cell attachment orgrowth is monitored in the presence and absence of a test compound andthe method is used to determine whether said test compound modulatesviability of the cells. In another example, the present methods can beconducted wherein the cell attachment or growth is stimulated by agrowth factor and the method is used to screen the test compound for agrowth factor antagonist.

Conditions that affect such cell attachment and growth can be monitoredand analyzed by the impedance measurement. Generally, for adherentcells, viable cells attach or adhere to the substrate. As cells die off,they start to lose adherence to the substrate and the detachment canthen be monitored by cell-substrate impedance. For example, the presentinvention can be used for cytotoxicity assays and for monitoring anddetermining cell physiological and health statues. Chemical compoundshaving toxic effects on the cells or suspected of having toxic effectson the cells can be added into the culture chamber/well in which cellsare present. The chemical compounds may lead to cell death via differentmechanisms such as apoptosis and necrosis. As cells die off from theirinitial viable states, the cell attachment condition changes. Typically,they would be losing attachment to the surface. Such loss of attachmentcan be readily monitored by the impedance change of the presentinvention. Thus, cytotoxic process can be monitored in real time by thepresent invention.

In another example, the present assay can be used for monitor cellproliferation. As cells proceed to division, more and more cells grow onthe electrode surfaces. This will lead to a larger impedance change oralteration in respect to electrode impedance baseline when no cells arepresent or no cells are attached to the electrode surfaces.

The present methods can be used to monitor attachment or growth of anysuitable cells. Exemplary cells include animal cells, plant cells,fungal cells, bacterial cells, recombinant cells and cultured cells.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method formonitoring cell attachment or growth, which method-comprises: a)providing an above-described multi-well microplate; b) attaching orgrowing cells in a well of said multi-well microplate wherein each wellcontains substantially same number of same type of cells and seriallydifferent concentration of a test compound; and c) monitoring impedancebetween or among the electrodes or electrode arrays as a function oftime to monitor the effect of said test compound on cell attachment orgrowth.

In one embodiment, the present method can further comprise determiningthe number of viable cells in each well. In another embodiment, thepresent method can further comprise determining whether the testcompound is an antagonist to the growth of the cells. In still anotherembodiment, the present method can further comprise determining thedose-response curve of the test compound.

The present apparatuses, microplates and methods can be used to monitorcell, tissue, or organ biological, physiological and pathologicalprocesses such as cell growth, cell death, toxicity and cell division,etc.

The important considerations for a cell toxicity, cell death, and cellsurvival assay include determination as to how many cells died and howmany cells are still viable. Current methods for cell toxicity, celldeath, and cell survival assay include: 1) measuring concentration ofintracellular ATP concentration to determine cell viability(fluorescence based detection system); 2) MTT assay, measuringintracellular enzymatic activity to determine cell viability (colormetric measurement); and 3) apoptotic cell specific staining, e.g.,TUNEL assay; dead cells are determined by fluorescence stained cells.All the current or conventional methods for cell toxicity, cell death,and cell survival assay have limitations in which they are laborintensive, require the use of expensive chemical reagents, and is aend-point assay that does not provide kinetic information.

For a cell survival assay, growth factors are essential for cellsurvival. Accordingly, treatment with a growth factor antagonistsresults in cell death by interfering with the growth factor signaltransduction pathways. The following illustrates a procedure for cellplating and growth: 1) plating 1×10⁶ cells in 3 T75 tissue cultureflasks with 12 ml of EGM media (growth media) per flask; 2) allowing thecells to attach overnight and changing the growth media; and 3) changingthe growth media once again after 3 days and allowing cell growth foranother two days.

The following illustrates a procedure for cell survival assay: 1)trypsinizing cells in T75 flasks and seed 1×10⁴ cells per well in 96well plates in 100 ul of volume and cultivating the cells in the growthmedium for overnight; 2) removing growth media and replacing with growthfactor free media to starve the cells for 24 hours; 3) adding serialdiluted growth factor antagonists to each well and incubating theculture for 1 hour; and 4) adding a corresponding growth factor orfactors to each well and continuing to cultivating the cells for 3 days.

The following illustrates a procedure for MTT assay: 1) after 72 hours(three days), adding 15 ul of MTT dye solution to each well;2)-incubating for 4.5 hours at 37° C. in 95% air/5% CO₂ incubator; 3)adding 100 ul of stop solution and incubating the plates overnight at37° C., 95% air, 5% CO₂ incubator; and 4) reading the plates at 570/630nm on the ELISA plate reader. The data from the plate reader areanalyzed using an Excel-based statistical data analyzing template andthe dose-response curves or even IC₅₀ (50% inhibitory concentration)values are generated.

The present apparatuses, microplates and methods, in combination withthe above-described procedures, can be used to measure total number ofcells by measuring the electrode impedance change. A correlation can beestablished between the change in the impedance and the cell number onthe electrodes. Such a correlation may be linear or may be non-linear.The advantages of the present apparatuses, microplates and methods overconventional methods for cell toxicity, cell death, and cell survivalassay are: (1) the assays performed using the present invention tomonitor cell conditions can be fully automated after cells are seededinto the wells and/or after the chemical compounds have been added tothe wells); (2) the assays performed using the present invention tomonitor cell conditions do not need reagents for detecting cellcondition; (3) the assays performed using the present invention tomonitor cell conditions can provide kinetic information.

The following example illustrates a cell survival assay using thepresent apparatuses, microplates and methods: 1) providing an microplateof the present invention for monitoring cell-substrate impedance wherethe electrode surface has been coated with specific adhesion-promotionmolecules; 2) trypsinizing cells in T75 flasks; 3) seeding cells intothe wells of the microplate according to surface density comparable to1×10⁴ cells per well in 96 well plates in 100 ul of volume, andcultivating the cells in the growth medium for overnight; 4) removinggrowth media and replacing with growth factor free media to starve thecells for 24 hours; 5) adding serial diluted growth factor antagoniststo each well in the microplate and incubating the culture for 1 hour; 6)adding a corresponding growth factor or factors to each well of themicroplate; 7) continuing to cultivating the cells for 3 days andmonitoring change in impedance between (or among) electrodes orelectrode arrays in each well with time over 3-days period; and 8)analyzing the impedance change and derive cell-number or cell-numberindex from the impedance change.

The present apparatuses or multi-well microplates can be usedindependently in the present methods. Alternatively, the presentapparatuses or multi-well microplates can be used as a part of a largerdevice or system.

The present methods can be conducted manually. The present methods canalso be conducted in a high-throughput mode. In one example, the presentmethod can be automated. In another example, the present methods can beconducted wherein the molecular reactions are monitored.

FIG. 19 illustrates operational principles of the monitoring ofmolecular reaction of bindings based on impedance measurement.

FIGS. 19(A, C, E and G) are cross-sectional drawing of a device of thepresent invention showing two electrodes. Capturing molecules, depictedwith “Y” symbols, are anchored, placed, introduced, or bound to surfaceof the electrodes. Capturing molecules may be any molecules that mayinteract with target molecules to be measured or monitored in a samplesolution. Capturing molecules may be antibodies, peptides, ligands,receptors, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, oligonucletides, or anymolecules that can interact with or bind to target molecules. As anexample, antibodies against DNA/RNA hybrid molecules are used ascapturing molecules. Such antibodies may be directed absorbed onto theelectrode surfaces. Alternatively, such antibodies may be labeled withbiotin-molecules so that biotin-modified antibodies can be immobilizedon the avidin-modified electrode surfaces through avidin-biotin binding.As an example, straptoavidin molecules are used as capturing molecules.In this case, target molecules to be monitored or assayed may be labeledwith biotin molecules so that biotin-labeled target molecules can bindto capturing molecules—straptoavidin molecules—on the electrode surfacesthrough biotin-avidin interaction.

Illustrated in FIG. 19(A) is a measurement of background impedance Z₀ asmeasured for the electrodes coated with or covered with or modified withcapturing molecules. Capturing molecules can be anchored to, placed to,absorbed to, or bound to the surface of the electrodes by any suitablephysical or chemical methods. Non-limiting examples of physical methodsfor coating may include passive absorption, spinning coating of moleculesolution followed by drying, spotting of molecule solutions ondesignated electrode structure units. Non-limiting examples of chemicalmethods for surface modification may include molecular self assembly,chemical reactions on the surface. These physical or chemical methodsare used to modify the electrode surfaces with anchoring chemicalmolecules.

FIG. 19(B) is Cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “♦” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Capturing molecules and target molecules form a molecularinteraction or molecular binding pairs so that target molecules can bindto the capturing molecules. Target molecules may be any molecules thatmay interact with capturing molecules. Target molecules in a samplesolution or suspected to be in a sample solution are molecules ofinterest to be measured or monitored. Like capturing molecules, targetmolecules may be antibodies, antigens, peptides, ligands, receptors,proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, oligonucletides, or any moleculesthat can interact with or bind to capturing molecules. Illustrated inFIG. 19(B) is a measurement of impedance Z_(M) as measured for theelectrodes modified with capturing molecules to which target moleculesbind. FIGS. 19(A) and 19(B) are a pair and show that the impedancebetween electrodes will be changed from Z₀ to Z_(M), corresponding to acondition that electrodes are modified with capturing molecules (FIG.19A) and to a condition that target molecules bind to the capturingmolecules (FIG. 19B).

FIG. 19(D) is a cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “⋄” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Different from FIG. 19(B), target molecules here are labeledwith labeling molecules or labeling particles, depicted with “∘”symbols. Capturing molecules and target molecules form a molecularinteraction or molecular binding pairs so that target molecules can bindto the capturing molecules. Labeling molecules or particles are themolecules or particles that would increase the impedance change of(Z_(ML)-Z₀), in another word, to amplify the detection signal. Targetmolecules may be any molecules that may interact with capturingmolecules. Target molecules in a sample solution or suspected to be in asample solution are molecules of interest to be measured or monitored.Like capturing molecules, target molecules may be antibodies, antigens,peptides, ligands, receptors, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides,oligonucletides, or any molecules that can interact with or bind tocapturing molecules. Illustrated in FIG. 19(D) is a measurement ofimpedance Z_(ML) as measured for the electrodes modified with capturingmolecules to which target molecules bind, wherein target molecules arelabeled with labeling molecules or particles. FIGS. 19(C) and 19(D) area pair and show that the impedance between electrodes will be changedfrom Z₀ to Z_(ML), corresponding to a condition that electrodes aremodified with capturing molecules (FIG. 19C) and to a condition thattarget molecules bind to the capturing molecules (FIG. 19D). Labelingmolecules or particles in FIG. 19(D) are used to amplify or furtherincrease the impedance change of (Z_(ML)-Z₀). One non-limiting exampleof the labeling molecules may be certain large organic molecules whosepresence on the electrode will affect the passage of the ions orelectrons at the electrode surfaces and will result in a large change inimpedance as measured between electrodes. One example of labelingparticles may be nano-sized, electrically non-conducing, orsemiconducting, or even conducing particles. The presence of suchnano-sized particles will affect the passage of the ions or electrons atthe electrode surfaces and will result in a large change in impedance asmeasured between electrodes. Here, the labeling molecules or particlesmay be attached to target molecules directly via covalent-bonding (orany other types of bonding) or indirectly via a recognition moleculecouple such as biotin-avidin, sugar-lecithin, antibody-antigen andreceptor-ligand.

FIG. 19(F) is a cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with “⋄” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Different from FIG. 19(B), target molecules here are labeledwith labeling molecules or labeling particles, depicted with “∘”symbols. Capturing molecules and target molecules form a molecularinteraction or molecular binding pairs so that target molecules can bindto the capturing molecules. Labeling molecules or particles are themolecules or particles that would increase the impedance change of(Z_(MP)-Z₀), in another word, to amplify detection signal. In this case,the signal amplification of the labeling molecules or particles isachieved through certain reaction between labeling molecules orparticles with some reaction (R) molecules in solution. The reactionproduct (P) is deposited or precipitated on the electrode surfaces,resulting the impedance Z_(MP) between electrodes. Target molecules maybe any molecules that may interact with capturing molecules. Targetmolecules in a sample solution or suspected to be in a sample solutionare molecules of interest to be measured or monitored. Like capturingmolecules, target molecules may be antibodies, antigens, peptides,ligands, receptors, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides,oligonucletides, or any molecules that can interact with or bind tocapturing molecules. Illustrated in FIG. 19(F) is a measurement ofimpedance Z_(MP) as measured for the electrodes modified with capturingmolecules to which target molecules bind, wherein target molecules arelabeled with labeling molecules or particles. FIGS. 19(E) and 19(F) area pair and show that the impedance between electrodes will be changedfrom Z₀ to Z_(MP), corresponding to a condition that electrodes aremodified with capturing molecules (FIG. 19(E)) and to a condition thattarget molecules bind to the capturing molecules (FIG. 19(F)). Labelingmolecules or particles in FIG. 19(F) are used to amplify or furtherincrease the impedance change of (Z_(MP)-Z₀). The signal amplificationof the labeling molecules or particles in FIG. 19(F) is achieved throughcertain reaction between labeling molecules or particles with somereaction (R) molecules in solution. The reaction product (P) isdeposited or precipitated on the electrode surfaces and will affect thepassage of electrons and/or ions at the electrode surfaces, leading to alarge impedance change. Here, the labeling molecules or particles may beattached to target molecules directly via covalent-bonding (or any othertypes of bonding) or indirectly via a recognition molecule couple suchas biotin-avidin, sugar-lecithin, antibody-antigen and receptor-ligand.The condition show in FIG. 19(F) can be regarded as a particular exampleof FIG. 19(D).

FIG. 19(H) is a cross-sectional drawing of a device of the presentinvention showing two electrodes with capturing molecules, depicted with“Y” symbols, on the surfaces of the electrodes and with targetmolecules, depicted with“⋄” symbols and binding to the capturemolecules. Different from FIG. 19(B), target molecules here are labeledwith labeling molecules, depicted with “∘” symbols. Capturing moleculesand target molecules form a molecular interaction or molecular bindingpairs so that target molecules can bind to the capturing molecules.Labeling molecules are the molecules that would increase the impedancechange of (Z_(MEP)-Z₀), in another word, to amplify detection signal. Inthis case, the labeling molecules are enzymes and signal amplificationof the labeling molecules is achieved through enzyme-mediated orcatalyzed reactions of substrate molecules (S) in a solution. Theproduct (P) of the enzyme-mediated reaction is deposited or precipitatedon the electrode surfaces, resulting impedance (Z_(MEP)) of theelectrodes is measured. Target molecules may be any molecules that mayinteract with capturing molecules. Target molecules in a sample solutionor suspected to be in a sample solution are molecules of interest to bemeasured or monitored. Like capturing molecules, target molecules may beantibodies, antigens, peptides, ligands, receptors, proteins, nucleicacids, nucleotides, oligonucletides, or any molecules that can interactwith or bind to capturing molecules. Illustrated in FIG. 19(H) is ameasurement of impedance Z_(MEP) as measured for the electrodes modifiedwith capturing molecules to which target molecules bind, wherein targetmolecules are labeled with labeling molecules or particles. FIGS. 19(G)and 19(H) are a pair and show that the impedance between electrodes willbe changed from Z₀ to Z_(MEP), corresponding to a condition thatelectrodes are modified with capturing molecules (FIG. 19G) and to acondition that target molecules bind to the capturing molecules (FIG.19H). Labeling molecules in FIG. 19(G) are used to amplify or furtherincrease the impedance change of (Z_(MEP)-Z₀). In this case, thelabeling molecules are enzymes and signal amplification of the labelingmolecules is achieved through enzyme-mediated or catalyzed reactions ofsubstrate molecules (S) in a solution. The product (P) of theenzyme-mediated reaction is deposited or precipitated on the electrodesurfaces, resulting impedance (Z_(MEP)) of the electrodes is measured.The reaction product (P) is deposited or precipitated on the electrodesurfaces and will affect the passage of electrons and/or ions at theelectrode surfaces, leading to a large impedance change. Here, thelabeling molecules or particles may be attached to target moleculesdirectly via covalent-bonding (or any other types of bonding) orindirectly via a recognition molecule couple such as biotin-avidin,sugar-lecithin, antibody-antigen and receptor-ligand. The condition showin FIG. 19(H) can be regarded as a particular example of FIG. 19(F).Some examples of such enzyme-based signal amplification are described inFIG. 8.

EXAMPLES OF CALCULATION METHODS AND APPLICATIONS I. Impedance FrequencySpectrum for Molecular Assays

As mentioned earlier, the impedance (Z) has two components, namely theresistance Rs and reactance Xs. Mathematically, the impedance Z isexpressed as follows,Z=Rs+j Xs,

where j=√{square root over (−1)}, depicting that for the (serial)reactance component Xs, the voltage applied over it is 90 degreephased-out from the current going through it. For the (serial)resistance, the voltage applied over it is in phase with the currentgoing through it. As it is well-known in electronic and electricalengineering, the impedance can also be expressed in terms of parallelresistance Rp and parallel reactance Xp, as follows,Z=Rp*(j Xp)/(Rp+j Xp),

where j=√{square root over (−1)}. Nevertheless, these expressions(serial resistance and serial reactance, or parallel resistance andparallel reactance) are equivalent. Those who are skilled in electricaland electronic engineering can readily derive one form of expressionfrom the parameter values in the other expression. For the sake ofclarity and consistency, the description and discussion in the presentinvention utilizes the expression of serial resistance and serialreactance. For simplicity, serial resistance and serial reactance aresimply called resistance and reactance.

FIG. 20(A) shows typical frequency spectra of measured resistance forcircle-on-line electrode structures (line width=30 micron, line gap=80micron, circle diameter=90 micron) fabricated on glass substrates undervarious conditions. The glass substrates containing electrode structuresare electrode devices. Plastic wells were assembled over electrodestructures to form a test device. The surface of the electrodestructures was immobilized with alkaline phosphate molecules by firstcoating the electrodes with biotin-labeled bovine serum albumin andfollowed by incubating the electrodes in streptavidin modified alkalinephosphate to allow streptavidin-modified alkaline phosphate (AP) to bindto biotin on the electrode surfaces. After streptavidin-modified AP wascoated onto the electrode surfaces, the well was washed extensively withTris buffer (pH=7.6). Tris solution containing BCIP (17 ul BCIP stock in1.5 ml Tris, BCIP stock was prepared in DMSO having a 25 mg/mlconcentration) and NBT (33 ul in 1.5 ml Tris, NBT stock was prepared inde-ionized water having a 25 mg/ml concentration) was then added intothe well. Impedance measurement was performed immediately after and atdifferent time points after addition of the solution. (a) symbol ⋄,immediately after addition of the solution, (b) symbols of X, □, Δ for13 (X), 28 (□)and 80 (Δ) minutes after the solution was added. Withenzyme-mediated reaction occurring on the electrode surfaces, theproduct of this reaction precipitated on the electrode surfaces andresulted in an increase of series resistance of the electrodes. For theimpedance measurement taken immediately (less than 1 minute) afteraddition of the solution, the enzyme-mediated reaction did not producemuch precipitation on the electrode surfaces, typically, the highfrequency (e.g., around 1 MHz and above) impedance (resistance andreactance) is mainly determined by the electrode geometry and electricalproperty of the medium (electrical conductivity and dielectricpermittivity) of the solution that is introduced over the electrodestructure. At lower frequencies, there exists a so-called “electrodepolarization” effect, leading to the frequency dependent resistance andcapacitance ((see, for example, Schwan, H. P., “Linear and nonlinearelectrode polarization and biological materials”, in Ann. Biomed. Eng.,Vol. 20, pp 269-288, 1992; Jaron, D., Schwan, H P and Geselowitz., “Amathematical model for the polarization impedance of cardiac pacemakerelectrodes”, in Med. Biol. Eng., Vol. 6, pp 579-594). For the conditionof 13 minutes after the solution was introduced to the well,precipitation of the product of the enzyme mediated reactions caused alarge change in the impedance between the electrodes. Because of thenon-conducting or little-conducting nature of the precipitation producton the electrode surfaces, the frequency spectrum of the resistance ofthe electrode structures was altered. Typically, there was an increasein resistance for frequencies below MHz. There was small change in thehigher frequency region.

FIG. 20(B) shows a frequency spectrum of measured reactance for the sameelectrode structures under the same conditions as in FIG. 20(A): (a)symbol ⋄, immediately after addition of the solution, (b) symbols of X,□, ▴ for 13 (X), 28 (□) and 80 (▴) minutes after the solution was added.Note that the reactance shown in FIG. 20(B) is the absolute value of thereactance, in another word, the magnitude of the reactance. For themeasurement taken immediately after the addition of the solution, thereactance was capacitive in nature between 10 Hz and 500 kHz andinductive in nature between 792 kHz and 5 MHz. For other measurements,the reactance was capacitive in nature between 10 Hz and 3.155 MHz andinductive in nature at 5 MHz. With enzyme-mediated reaction occurring onthe electrode surfaces, the product of this reaction precipitated on theelectrode surfaces and resulted in an increase of series reactance ofthe electrodes. For the impedance measurement taken immediately (lessthan 1 minute) after addition of the solution, the enzyme-mediatedreaction did not produce much precipitation on the electrode surfaces,typically, the high frequency (e.g., around 1 MHz and above) impedance(resistance and reactance) is mainly determined by the electrodegeometry and electrical property of the medium (electrical conductivityand dielectric permittivity) of the solution that is introduced over theelectrode structure. At lower frequencies, there exists a so-called“electrode polarization” effect, leading to the frequency dependentresistance and capacitance (see, for example, Schwan, H. P., “Linear andnonlinear electrode polarization and biological materials”, in Ann.Biomed. Eng., Vol. 20, pp 269-288, 1992; Jaron, D., Schwan, H P andGeselowitz., “A mathematical model for the polarization impedance ofcardiac pacemaker electrodes”, in Med. Biol. Eng., Vol. 6, pp 579-594).For the condition of 13 minutes after the solution was introduced to thewell, precipitation of the product of the enzyme mediated reactionscaused a large change in the impedance between the electrodes. Becauseof the non-conducting or little-conducting nature of the precipitationproduct on the electrode surfaces, the frequency spectrum of thereactance of the electrode structures was also altered. Different fromthe changes occurred to the measured resistance, large relative changein reactance occurred for high frequencies. Relatively, small changes inreactance occurred for low frequencies (for example, less than 100 Hz).

If the ratio of resistance is measured at different time points ofmolecular reaction (i.e. at different time points after the addition ofthe solution), compared to the resistance measured immediately after theaddition of the solution, and the resulting ratio plotted (namely,relative change in resistance or serial resistance) as a function of thefrequency, typically, a peak-shaped curve is obtained (FIG. 20(C)). Athigh frequency, there is small or no change in the impedance (in thiscase, the serial resistance), the ratio is close to one. With decreasingfrequency, this ratio increases until it reaches a peak-value. Withdecreasing the frequency further, the ratio decreases. Even at 10 Hz,the ratio is still significantly higher than one.

It is also possible to plot a relative change in the reactance orcapacitance value and use the change in the reactance to monitor andreflect the molecular reaction taking place on the electrode surfaces orto monitor the enzyme-mediated reaction that causes precipitation of thereaction product on the electrode surfaces (see FIG. 20(D)).Furthermore, expression of impedance in terms of parallel resistance andreactance can also be used for describing the change in impedance due tomolecular reactions occurring on the electrode surfaces.

II. Impedance Frequency Spectrum for Cell Assays

FIG. 38(A) shows typical frequency spectra of measured resistance forcircle-on-line electrode structures fabricated on glass substrates undertwo conditions: (a), open symbol, shortly after (within 10 minutes,cells had not attached yet to the electrode and substrate surfaces) thetissue culture medium containing HT1080 cells was added to a wellcontaining the electrode structure; (b) solid symbol, 2 h 40 minutes(cells were attached to the electrode and substrate surfaces) after theculture medium containing HT1080 cells were added to the wellscontaining the electrode structures on the well bottom surface. Shortlyafter (within 10 minutes) cell-containing medium was added the well, thecells did not have enough time to attach to the electrodes. This wasconfirmed by that the measured impedance (resistance and reactance) forthe electrode structure with the cell-containing medium was the same, oralmost the same, as that obtained for the cell-free medium added to thewell. For the condition when the cell-free culture medium was introducedover the electrodes, or when the cell-containing medium was introducedover the electrodes but the cells did not have enough time to attach tothe electrode structures, typically, the high frequency (e.g., around 1MHz and above) impedance (resistance and reactance) is mainly determinedby the electrode geometry and electrical property of the medium(electrical conductivity and dielectric permittivity) of the solutionthat is introduced over the electrode structure. At lower frequencies,there exists a so-called “electrode polarization” effect, leading to thefrequency dependent resistance and capacitance ((see, for example,Schwan, H. P., “Linear and nonlinear electrode polarization andbiological materials”, in Ann. Biomed. Eng., Vol. 20, pp 269-288, 1992;Jaron, D., Schwan, H P and Geselowitz., “A mathematical model for thepolarization impedance of cardiac pacemaker electrodes”, in Med. Biol.Eng., Vol. 6, pp 579-594). For the condition of 2 h 40 minutes after thecell-containing medium was introduced to the well which was placed intoa tissue culture incubator for over 2 h 40 minutes, the cells were givenenough time to attach and spread (as confirmed by microscope examinationof the cells in the region not covered by the electrodes). Because ofthe non-conducting nature of the cell membrane, the frequency spectrumof the resistance of the electrode structures was altered. Typically,there was an increase in the inter-mediate frequencies (1 kHz to 100kHz). There was small change in either lower or higher frequencyregions.

FIG. 38(B) shows a frequency spectrum of measured reactance for the sameelectrode structures under two same conditions as in FIG. 38(A): (a),open symbol, shortly after (within 10 minutes, cells had not attachedyet to the electrode and substrate surfaces) the tissue culture mediumcontaining HT1080 cells was added to a well containing the electrodestructure; (b) solid symbol, 2 h 40 minutes (cells were attached to theelectrode and substrate surfaces) after the culture medium containingHT1080 cells were added to the wells containing the electrode structureson the well bottom surface. Shortly after (e.g., within 10 minutes)cell-containing medium was added the well, the cells did not have enoughtime to attach to the electrodes. This was confirmed by that themeasured impedance (resistance and reactance) for the electrodestructure with the cell-containing medium was the same, or almost thesame, as that obtained for the cell-free medium added to the well. Asdescribed above, for the condition when the cell-free culture medium wasintroduced over the electrodes, or when the cell-containing medium wasintroduced over the electrodes but the cells did not have enough time toattach to the electrode structures typically, the high frequency (e.g.,around 1 MHz and above) resistance is mainly determined by the electrodegeometry and electrical conductivity of the solution that is introducedover the electrode structure. At lower frequencies, there exists aso-called “electrode polarization” effect, leading to the frequencydependent resistance and capacitance (see, for example, Schwan, H. P.,“Linear and nonlinear electrode polarization and biological materials”,in Ann. Biomed. Eng., Vol. 20, pp 269-288, 1992; Jaron, D., Schwan, H Pand Geselowitz., “A mathematical model for the polarization impedance ofcardiac pacemaker electrodes”, in Med. Biol. Eng., Vol. 6, pp 579-594).For the condition of 2 h 40 minutes after the cell-containing medium wasintroduced to the well, which was placed in a tissue culture incubatorfor 2 h 40 minutes, the cells were given enough time to attach andspread (as confirmed by microscope examination of the cells in theregion not covered by the electrodes). Under such a condition, becauseof the non-conducting nature of the cell membrane, the frequencyspectrum of the reactance of the electrode structures was altered.Different from the change in the resistance, the major relative changeoccurred in the higher frequencies where the overall magnitude of thereactance was also increased significantly because of the cells attachedonto the electrodes.

If we take the ratio of resistance measured with cell-attached to theresistance measured without cells-attached and plot this ratio (namely,relative change in resistance or serial resistance) as a function of thefrequency, typically, we observe a peak-shaped curve (FIG. 38(C)). Atlower frequency, there is small or no change in the impedance (in thiscase, the serial resistance), the ratio is approximately one. Withincreasing frequency, this ratio increases until it reaches apeak-value. With increasing the frequency further, the ratio decreasesto about one at high frequencies. It should be pointed out that it isalso possible to plot a relative change in the reactance or capacitancevalue and use the change in the reactance to monitor and reflect thecell attachment to the electrode surfaces (see FIG. 38(D)). Furthermore,expression of impedance in terms of parallel resistance and reactancecan also be used for describing the change in impedance due to cellattachment to the electrode surfaces.

The peak value of the resistance ratio (i.e., the ratio of theresistance with cell-attached to the electrodes to the resistance whenno-cell-attached to the electrodes) and the frequency at which the peakvalue occurs depend on, among other things, how many cells attached onthe electrode surface, how tight such attachment is, the size of thecells, what dielectric properties the cells have for their plasmamembrane and intracellular components. For a number of the cell types wehave tested, we found that more cells attached to the electrode surfaceresult in higher peak value for the ratio and the higher frequency valueat which the peak occurs, for the cells of the same type and undersimilar physiological conditions (e.g. in exponential growth phase).

In comparison with the results in FIGS. 38(A), 38(B) and 38(C), FIGS.39(A), 39(B), 39(C) shows the frequency spectra of the resistance,reactance and resistance ratio for a similar circle-on-line electrodewith more cells applied to the wells comprising the circle-on-lineelectrode structures on the bottom well, FIGS. 40(A), 40(B), 40(C) showsthe results for less-number of cells attached to the electrodes.

FIG. 41A shows the frequency spectra of resistance-ratio for differentnumbers of cells added into the wells comprising the same types ofcircle-on-line electrodes. For example, seeding about 500 cells resultsa maximum of 17% change in the serial resistance occurring at ˜2 kHz,whilst seeding 3200 and 7000 cells resulted 182% and 517% change inserial resistance occurring at ˜5 and 30 kHz, respectively. Again, thechange in the serial reactance can also be used for demonstrating suchrelationship between the cell number and the magnitude of the changein-reactance (see FIG. 41B, for example, the reactance values at 250 kHzmay be used to illustrate relationship between the cell number and themagnitude of the change in reactance). Furthermore, if parallelresistance and parallel reactance are used to express the measuredimpedance, it is also possible demonstrate the dependent relationshipbetween the cell number and the magnitude of the changes in parallelresistance and/or parallel reactance.

III. Derivation of Molecular Interaction Index

Based on the dependent relationship between the measured impedance andmolecular interaction index, it is possible to derive a so-called“molecular interaction index” from the measured impedance frequencyspectra. Various methods for calculating such a molecular interactionindex can be used. In the following, we illustrate several methods forcalculating such a molecular interaction index based on the change inresistance or reactance when molecular interactions occur on theelectrode surfaces with respect to that of the electrode surfaces priorto the mentioned molecular interaction. The impedance (resistance andreactance) of the electrode structures prior to the molecular reactiontaking place but with same sample solutions over the electrodestructures is sometimes referred as baseline impedance. Thus, oneapproach to obtain the baseline impedance is by measuring the impedanceof the electrodes or electrode structures with a solution introducedinto the well containing the electrode structures, wherein the solutionis the same as that used for the impedance measurements for thecondition where the molecular binding reaction is monitored exceptwithout the target molecules, here the surface of the electrodes orelectrode structures is also anchored with or covered with orimmobilized with capturing molecules.

In one example, the molecular interaction index can be calculated by:

-   -   at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio by        dividing the measured resistance (when molecular interaction        take place on the electrode surfaces) by the baseline        resistance,    -   finding or determining the maximum value in the resistance ratio        over the frequency spectrum,    -   and subtracting one from the maximum value in the resistance        ratio.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “molecular interaction index”indicates that no molecular reaction occurs on the electrode surfaces. Ahigher value of “molecular interaction index” indicates that, forsimilar type of molecular reactions, more reactions occurred to theelectrode surfaces.

In another example, the molecular interaction index can be calculatedby:

-   -   at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio by        dividing the measured resistance (when molecular interaction        take place on the electrode surfaces) to the baseline        resistance,    -   finding or determining the maximum value in the resistance ratio        over the frequency spectrum    -   and taking a log-value (e.g., based on 10 or e=2.718) of the        maximum value in the In this case, a zero or near-zero        “molecular interaction index” indicates that no molecular        reaction occurs on the electrode surfaces. A higher value of        “molecular interaction index” indicates that, for similar type        of molecular reactions, more reactions occurred to the electrode        surfaces.

In one example, the molecular interaction index can be calculated by:

-   -   at each measured frequency, calculating the reactance ratio by        dividing the measured reactance (when molecular interaction take        place on the electrode surfaces) to the baseline reactance,    -   finding or determining the maximum value in the reactance ratio        over the frequency spectrum    -   and subtracting one from the maximum value in the resistance        ratio.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “molecular interaction index”indicates that no molecular reaction occurs on the electrode surfaces. Ahigher value of “molecular interaction index” indicates that, forsimilar type of molecular reactions, more reactions occurred to theelectrode surfaces.

In yet another example, the index can be calculated by:

-   -   at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio by        dividing the measured resistance ((when molecular interaction        take place on the electrode surfaces) to the baseline        resistance,    -   then calculating the relative change in resistance in each        measured frequency by subtracting one from the resistance ratio,    -   then integrating all the relative-change value.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “molecular interaction index”indicates that no molecular reaction occurs on the electrode surfaces. Ahigher value of “molecular interaction index” indicates that, forsimilar type of molecular reactions, more reactions occurred to theelectrode surfaces.

It is worthwhile to point out that it is not necessary to derive such a“molecular interaction index” for utilizing the impedance informationfor monitoring molecular reaction conditions over the electrodes.Actually, one may choose to directly use impedance values (e.g., at asingle fixed frequency; or at a maximum relative-change frequency, or atmultiple frequencies) as an indicator of molecular interactionsoccurring on the electrode surfaces.

IV. Derivation of Cell Number Index

Based on the dependent relationship between the measured impedance, cellnumber (more accurately, the viable cell number, or attached cellnumber) and cell attachment status, it is possible to derive a so-called“cell number index” (or cell index) from the measured impedancefrequency spectra. Various methods for calculating such a cell numberindex can be used. In the following, we illustrate several methods forcalculating such cell number index based on the change in resistance orreactance when cells are attached to the electrode structure withrespect to the cells not attached to the electrode structure. Theimpedance (resistance and reactance) of the electrode structures with nocell attached but with same cell culture medium over the electrodestructures is sometimes referred as baseline impedance. The baselineimpedance may be obtained by one or more of the following ways: (1) theimpedance measured for the electrode structures with a cell-free culturemedium introduced into the well containing the electrode structures,wherein the culture medium is the same as that used for the impedancemeasurements for the condition where the cell attachment is monitored;(2) the impedance measured shortly (e.g. 10 minutes) after thecell-containing medium was applied to the wells comprising the electrodestructures on the well bottom (during the short period aftercell-containing medium addition, cells do not have enough time to attachto the electrode surfaces. The length of this short-period may depend oncell type and/or surface treatment or modification on the electrodesurfaces); (3) the impedance measured for the electrode structures whenall the cells in the well were killed by certain treatment (e.g.high-temperature treatment) and/or reagents (e.g. detergent) (for thismethod to be used, the treatment and/or reagents should not affect thedielectric property of the medium which is over the electrodes).

In one example, the cell number index can be calculated by:

-   -   (1) at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio        by dividing the measured resistance (when cells are attached to        the electrodes) by the baseline resistance,    -   (2) finding or determining the maximum value in the resistance        ratio over the frequency spectrum    -   (3) and subtracting one from the maximum value in the resistance        ratio.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “cell number index” indicates that nocells or very small number of cells are present on or attached to theelectrode surfaces. A higher value of “cell number index” indicatesthat, for same type of the cells and cells under similar physiologicalconditions, more cells are attached to the electrode surfaces.

In another example, the cell number index can be calculated by:

-   -   (1) at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio        by dividing the measured resistance (when cells are attached to        the electrodes) to the baseline resistance,    -   (2) finding or determining the maximum value in the resistance        ratio over the frequency spectrum    -   (3) and taking a log-value (e.g., based on 10 or e=2.718) of the        maximum value in the resistance ratio.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “cell number index” indicates that nocells or very small number of cells are present on or attached to theelectrode surfaces. A higher value of “cell number index” indicatesthat, for same type of the cells and cells under similar physiologicalconditions, more cells are attached to the electrode surfaces.

In one example, the cell number index can be calculated by:

-   -   (1) at each measured frequency, calculating the reactance ratio        by dividing the measured reactance (when cells are attached to        the electrodes) to the baseline reactance,    -   (2) finding or determining the maximum value in the reactance        ratio over the frequency spectrum    -   (3) and subtracting one from the maximum value in the resistance        ratio.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “cell number index” indicates that nocells or very small number of cells are present on or attached to theelectrode surfaces. A higher value of “cell number index” indicatesthat, for same type of the cells and cells under similar physiologicalconditions, more cells are attached to the electrode surfaces.

In yet another example, the index can be calculated by:

-   -   (1) at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio        by dividing the measured resistance (when cells are attached to        the electrodes) to the baseline resistance,    -   (2) then calculating the relative change in resistance in each        measured frequency by subtracting one from the resistance ratio,    -   (3) then integrating all the relative-change value.

In this case, “cell-number index” is derived based on multiple-frequencypoints, instead of single peak-frequency like above examples. Again, azero or near-zero “cell number index” indicates that on cells arepresent on the electrodes. A higher value of “cell number index”indicates that, for same type of the cells and cells under similarphysiological conditions, more cells are attached to the electrodes.

It is worthwhile to point out that it is not necessary to derive such a“cell number index” for utilizing the impedance information formonitoring cell conditions over the electrodes. Actually, one may chooseto directly use impedance values (e.g., at a single fixed frequency; orat a maximum relative-change frequency, or at multiple frequencies) asan indicator of cell conditions.

Still, it is preferred for the present invention to derive “cell numberindex” and use such index to monitor cell conditions. There are severaladvantages of using “cell number index” to monitor cell growth and/orattachment and/or viability conditions.

First, one can compare the performance of different electrode geometriesby utilizing such cell number index.

Secondly, for a given electrode geometry, it is possible to construct“calibration curve” for depicting the relationship between the cellnumber and the cell number index by performing impedance measurementsfor different number of cells added to the electrodes (in such anexperiment, it is important to make sure that the seeded cells havewell-attached to the electrode surfaces). With such a calibration curve,when a new impedance measurement is performed, it is then possible toestimate cell number from the newly-measured cell number index.

Thirdly, cell number index can also be used to compare different surfaceconditions. For the same electrode geometry and same number of cells, asurface treatment given a larger cell number index indicates a betterattachment for the cells to the electrode surface and/or better surfacefor cell attachment.

C. Devices and Methods for Monitoring Cell Migration or Growth

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a device formonitoring cell migration or growth, which device comprises annonconducting substrate comprising, on the surface of said substrate, afirst area for cell attachment, surrounded by a second electrode areacomprising at least two electrodes, wherein said first cell attachmentarea is separated from said second electrode area by a cell migrationbarrier, wherein removal of said barrier allows cell migration or growthfrom said first cell attachment area into said second electrode area,and said cell migration or growth results in a change of impedancebetween or among electrodes in said second electrode area.

The first cell attachment area can have any surface suitable for cellattachment. In addition, the first cell attachment area is modified witha cell-adhesion promotion moiety to increase the efficiency of cellattachment. Any suitable cell-adhesion promotion moieties, including theones described in the above Section B, can be used in the presentdevices.

The first cell attachment area and the second electrode area of presentdevices can have any suitable configurations. For example, as shown inFIG. 24, the first cell attachment area and the second electrode areaare concentric.

Any suitable cell migration barrier can be used in the present devices.For example, the cell migration barrier can be a well that is made ofpolymer materials.

The impedance can be measured or analyzed in any suitable frequencyrange, e.g., in a frequency range between about 1 Hz and about 100 MHz,or between 10 Hz and 5 MHz.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method formonitoring cell migration or growth, which method comprises: a)providing an above-described device for monitoring cell migration orgrowth; b) placing cells to be monitored on the first cell attachmentarea; c) removing the cell migration barrier and allowing migration orgrowth of said cells from the first cell attachment area into the secondelectrode area; and d) monitoring a change of impedance between or amongelectrodes in said second electrode area to monitor migration or growthof said cells.

The present methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters thatare related to migration or growth. For example, the present methods canfurther comprise determining the amount or number of cells that migrateor grow into the second electrode area.

The present methods can be used to determine weather a test compound canmodulate, i.e., increase or decrease, migration or growth, or to screenfor such a modulator. For example, the present methods can be conductedwherein the cell migration or growth is monitored in the presence andabsence of a test compound and the method is used to determine whethersaid test compound modulates migration or growth of the cells. Inanother example, the present methods can be conducted wherein the cellmigration or growth is stimulated by a migration or growth stimulatorand the method is used to screen the test compound for an antagonist ofsaid stimulator.

Measurement of length and numbers of neurites in cultivated neurons(cell lines or primary neuronal cell culture) under microscope is theonly means by which neurite outgrowth has been studied. This measurementis very slow and subjective. By integrating the fluorescence labelingwith fluorescent confocal microscopy and computational technology, theaccuracy of the measurement has been significantly improved. However,the system is very expensive and fluorescent labeling is required. Inaddition, because of the slow workflow, this system is unable to meetlarge-scale studies.

The devices as described below allows for single neuron positioning andneurite outgrowth real-time measurement. The scale of the device orapparatus can be designed based on the requirement. For example, anapparatus for research purposes will be the low-density arrays and theassay will be semi-automated. An apparatus for high throughput screeningfor drug leads will be the high-density arrays, which fit the currentscreening system, and the assays will be fully automated. The softwarepackage allows basic measurement, calculation, and statistical analysis.

Accordingly, in yet another aspect, the present invention is directed toa device for monitoring neurite outgrowth, which apparatus comprises annonconducting substrate comprising, on its surface, a center neuronanchoring area surrounded by a neurite growth detection area, whereinneurite growth detection area comprises at least two electrodes that arecapable of generating a change of impedance between or among saidelectrodes when at least one of said electrodes is at least partiallycovered by said growing neuron. For example, a change of impedance canbe generated when at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%,80%, 90%, 95%, 99% or 100% of at least one of said electrodes is coveredby said growing neuron.

The neuron anchoring area can have any surface suitable for cellattachment. In addition, the neuron anchoring area can be modified witha cell-adhesion promotion moiety to increase the efficiency of neuronanchoring. Any suitable cell-adhesion promotion moieties, including theones described in the above Section B, can be used in the presentapparatuses for monitoring neurite outgrowth.

The neuron anchoring area and the neurite outgrowth detection area ofthe present apparatuses can have any suitable configurations. Forexample, as shown in FIG. 25, the neuron anchoring area and the neuriteoutgrowth detection area can be concentric. In another example, theneuron anchoring area can be a center circular region and the neuriteoutgrowth detection areas comprise multiple circular or segmentelectrodes. In another example, the neuron anchoring area can be acenter square region and the neurite outgrowth detection areas comprisemultiple linear segment electrodes.

The present apparatuses can further comprise an impedance analyzercapable of monitoring a change of impedance between or among any two ormore electrodes.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method formonitoring neurite outgrowth, which method comprises: a) providing anabove-described apparatus for monitoring neurite outgrowth; b)positioning a neuron to be monitored on the neuron anchoring area; c)allowing growth of said neuron from the neuron anchoring area into theneurite outgrowth detection area; and d) monitoring a change ofimpedance between or among electrodes in the neurite outgrowth detectionarea to monitor growth of said neuron.

The present methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters thatare related to neurite outgrowth. For example, the present methods canbe used to monitor length and numbers of neurites in cultivated neurons.Although the present methods can be used to monitor neurite outgrowth ofa single neuron, it is preferable to be used in high-throughput mode,e.g., to be used to monitor the outgrowth of a plurality of neuronssimultaneously.

The present methods can be used to determine weather a test compound canmodulate, i.e., increase or decrease, neurite outgrowth, or to screenfor such a modulator. For example, the present methods can be conductedwherein the neurite outgrowth is monitored in the presence and absenceof a test compound and the method is used to determine whether said testcompound modulates the neurite outgrowth. In another example, thepresent methods can be conducted wherein the neurite outgrowth isstimulated by a neurite outgrowth stimulator and the method is used toscreen the test compound for an antagonist of said stimulator.

The following illustrates an example of the present apparatus and itsoperation. The apparatus comprises a solid substrate, on which aplurality of measurement units is incorporated. Each measurement unitcomprises multiple electrodes, having appropriate geometricalrelationships. The electrodes are capable of positioning individualneuron cells onto desired locations on the substrate surfaces whenappropriate electrical signals are applied to the electrodes to producepositioning dielectrophoretic forces (e.g., see review by Wang X-B andCheng J. “Electronic manipulation of cells on microchip-based devices”in Biochip Technology (eds: Cheng J and Kricka L), Harwood AcademicPublishers, PA, U.S.A., pp 135-139). In one embodiment, the measurementunit comprises a center circular electrode, surrounded by multiplecircular, segment electrodes. In another embodiment, the measurementunit comprises a center square electrode, surrounded by multiple linearsegment electrodes. The apparatus may further comprise an impedanceanalyzer that is capable of determining the impedance between two setsof electrodes.

In use, the neuron cells at suitable concentrations are introduced ontothe chip surface. Individual cells are positioned onto the center ofmeasurement units with applying suitable electrical voltage signals.After the neuron cells landed and adhered onto the chip surface,electrical impedance between the electrodes within the microelectrodearray is determined. The measured impedance values are used to deriveinformation about the neurite outgrowth. When the axons and dendritesgrown from the positioned neurons reach on to a particular electrodeelement, the electrical impedance at that electrode element is altered.

D. Apparatuses and Methods for Analyzing a Particle in a Microchannel

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to an apparatusfor analyzing a particle, which apparatus comprises a substratecomprising a microchannel and a pair of electrodes located on oppositesides along said microchannel, each of said electrodes having a surfacearea that equals to or is less than twice the largest cross-sectionalarea of a particle to be analyzed, wherein passage of said particlethrough said electrode pair in said microchannel generates a change ofimpedance between said electrodes that can be used to analyze saidparticle.

The electrodes of the present apparatuses for analyzing a particle in amicrochannel can have any suitable surface area, length or height. Inone example, each of the electrodes can have a surface area that equalsto or is less than the same, a half, or ten percent the largestcross-sectional area of a particle to be analyzed. In another example,each of the microelectrodes can have, along the length of themicrochannel, a length that is substantially less than the largestsingle-dimension of a particle to be analyzed. In still another example,the electrodes can span the entire height of the microchannel.

The present apparatuses can have any suitable number of electrodes. Inone example, the present apparatuses comprise two pairs of theelectrodes, said two pairs are separated from each other along thelength of the microchannel by a distance that equals to or is less thanthe largest single-dimension of a particle to be analyzed. Preferably, achange of impedance between the two pairs of the microelectrodes ismeasured.

In another example, the present apparatuses comprise three pairs of theelectrodes, said three pairs separated from each other along the lengthof the microchannel, wherein the pairs of the electrodes on both endsare used to supply voltages and the pair of the electrodes in the middleis used to generate a change of electrode impedance. Preferably, thechange of voltage between the middle pair and an end pair is monitored.

In still another example, the present apparatuses comprise four pairs ofthe microelectrodes, said four pairs separated from each other along thelength of the microchannel, wherein the two pairs of the electrodes onboth ends are used to supply voltages and the two pairs of theelectrodes in the middle are used to generate a change of electrodeimpedance. Preferably, the change of voltage between one of the middlepairs and one of the end pairs is monitored.

The present apparatuses can further comprise an impedance analyzer.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method foranalyzing a particle, which method comprises: a) providing anabove-described apparatus for analyzing a particle in a microchannel; b)allowing a particle to be analyzed to pass through the electrode pair inthe microchannel to generate a change of impedance between saidelectrodes; and c) monitoring said change of impedance to analyze saidparticle.

The present methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters of aparticle. For example, the present methods can further compriseanalyzing amount or number of particle(s). The present methods can beused to monitor any suitable particles. The present methods can be usedto monitor cells as well as non-cell particles. Exemplary cells includeanimal cells, plant cells, fungal cells, bacterial cells, recombinantcells and cultured cells. The present methods can be used to monitor anysuitable parameters of a cell, e.g., the nucleic acid content of thecell. See Song at al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 97(20):10687-90(2000). Preferably, the DNA content of the cell is monitored.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to an apparatusfor analyzing a particle, which apparatus comprises: a) a containersuitable for containing a solution comprising a particle to be analyzed;and b) a membrane separating said container into two electricallyisolated chambers, said membrane comprising an aperture having a poresize that equals to or is slightly larger than size of said particle andtwo electrodes suitable for detecting a change of impedance in saidsolution caused by a transit passage of said particle through saidaperture.

The membrane of the present apparatuses can have any suitable thickness.In one example, the membrane can have a thickness from about 1 micron toabout 100 microns. In another example, the membrane can have a thicknessfrom about 5 micron to about 30 micron. In another example, the membranecan have a thickness that equals to or is smaller than a diameter of aparticle to be analyzed.

The aperture of the present apparatuses can have any suitable pore size,depending on the size of the particles to be analyzed. For example, theaperture can have a pore size of about 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, or 50microns.

The two electrodes of the present apparatuses can have any suitablelocations and configurations. In one example, the two electrodes can belocated on the opposite sides of the membrane. In another example, thetwo electrodes can have a concentric dimension surrounding the aperture.

In one embodiment, the present apparatuses can comprise a plurality ofmembranes arranged in series to allow a particle to pass apertures ofsaid membranes sequentially. In another embodiment, the presentapparatuses can further comprise an impedance analyzer.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method foranalyzing a particle, which method comprises: a) providing anabove-described apparatus; b) placing a solution comprising a particleto be analyzed in the container and allowing said particle to passthrough the aperture; and c) detecting a change of impedance in saidsolution caused by the transit passage of said particle through saidaperture to analyze said particle.

The present methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters of aparticle. For example, the present methods can be used to analyze sizeor dielectric property of the particle.

To facilitate analysis, the particle can be labeled with a nano-sizeddielectric or electric moiety. Preferably, the nano-sized dielectric orelectric moiety can comprise an antibody that specifically binds to theparticle to be analyzed. Also preferably, the nano-sized dielectric orelectric moiety can be a gold particle.

The present methods can be used to monitor cells as well as non-cellparticles. Exemplary cells include animal cells, plant cells, fungalcells, bacterial cells, recombinant cells and cultured cells. Thepresent methods can be used to monitor any suitable parameters of acell, e.g., size, dielectric property, or viability of the cell. Tofacilitate analysis, the cell can be labeled with a nano-sizeddielectric or electric moiety. Preferably, the nano-sized dielectric orelectric moiety can comprise an antibody that specifically binds to thecell to be analyzed. Also preferably, the nano-sized dielectric orelectric moiety can be a gold particle.

E. Systems and Methods for Monitoring Cell-Substrate Impedance andSolution Conductivity

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to systems andmethods for monitoring cell-substrate impedance and solutionconductivity. Any apparatuses, systems and methods for monitoringcell-substrate impedance, including the ones described in the abovesections and those commonly known in the art, can be used in the presentsystems and methods. Any apparatuses, systems and methods for monitoringsolution conductivity that are commonly known in the art can be used inthe present systems and methods. See e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,520 B1.

In one embodiment, the present invention is directed to a system formonitoring cell-substrate impedance and solution conductivity, whichsystem comprises: a) a substrate defining a plurality of discretemicrowells on a substrate surface, each of said wells comprising anapparatus for monitoring cell-substrate impedance described in the abovesections; and b) a means for measuring the conductance of a solutionmedium in each microwell, said means including (i) a pair of electrodesadapted for insertion into a well on said substrate, and (ii) electricalmeans for applying a low-voltage, AC signal across said electrodes whensaid electrodes are submerged in said medium, and (iii) electrical meansfor synchronously measuring the current across said electrodes, saidsystem can be used to monitor attachment, growth or metabolic activityof cells contained in each well.

In another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a system formonitoring cell-substrate impedance and solution conductivity, whichsystem comprises: a) a substrate defining a plurality of discretemicrowells on a substrate surface, each of said wells comprising anapparatus for monitoring cell-substrate impedance described in the abovesections; and b) a sub-system comprising: i) at least one pair ofelectrodes adapted for insertion into a first well on said substrate;and (ii) circuitry adapted for applying a low-voltage, AC signal acrosssaid first pair of electrodes when said electrodes are submerged insolution medium in said first well, and for synchronously measuring thecurrent across said electrodes, said system can be used to monitorattachment, growth or metabolic activity of cells contained in eachwell.

In still another embodiment, the present invention is directed to amethod for monitoring cell attachment, growth or metabolic activity,which method comprises: a) providing an above-described system formonitoring cell-substrate impedance and solution conductivity; b)placing a solution comprising cells to be monitored into at least onewell of said system ; and c) monitoring cell-substrate impedance andsolution conductivity in said well to monitor attachment, growth ormetabolic activity of cells contained in each well. Preferably, cellsare monitored in multiple wells or all wells of the systemsimultaneously.

F. EXAMPLES

The following examples are intended to illustrate but not to limit theinvention.

Example 1 Resistance and Capacitive Reactance for 8 Different Types ofElectrodes Attached with or without Cells

FIG. 26 illustrates resistance and reactance for 8 different types ofelectrodes attached with or without NIH 3T3 cells. The unit for bothresistance and reactance is Ohm. The magnitudes of the reactance wereplotted in a log-scale. Note that the polarity for the reactance at mostof the frequencies was negative (capacitive reactance). The diameter ofthe electrode for 2AA, 2AB, 2AC, 2AD, and 3A is 1 mm; the diameter ofthe electrode for 2BE, 3B and 3C is 3 mm. The features of each electrodetypes are different and are summarized in Table 1. The surfaces ofelectrodes were coated with chemical and biological molecules. In thisexperiment, fibronectin was used. After coating, NIH 3T3 cells were thenseeded onto the surfaces of the electrodes. The resistance and reactance(capacitive reactance) were measured at 0 hour (immediately afterseeding the cells) and at two hours after the seeding. (A, B) Resistanceand capacitive reactance as a function of frequency for eight differenttypes of electrode geometry. Increase in resistance and decrease incapacitive reactance were seen in all five electrode types attached withNIH 3T3 (2 hours after seeding the cells), compared with theircorresponding microelectrodes on which cells were not attached (0 hourafter seeding the cells) as indicated. (B) The bar graph summarizes theresistance and capacitive reactance changes at a given frequency asindicated. Here, the capacitive reactance value is the absolute value.Changes of resistance and capacitive reactance were only seen in theelectrodes attached with NIH 3T3 cells.

TABLE 1 summary of some of the electrodes that have been tested.Electrode Electrode Structure Substrate Structure Dimension Diameter ofName Material Type (micron) active area 2CF Glass Interdigitated 48/28 6mm 2BE Glass Interdigitated 48/18 3 mm 2AA Glass Interdigitated 80/50 1mm 2AB Glass Interdigitated 80/15 1 mm 2AC Glass Interdigitated 50/30 1mm 2AD Glass Interdigitated 50/10 1 mm 3C Glass Circle-on-line60/160/180 3 mm 3B Glass Circle-on-line 30/80/90 3 mm 3A GlassCircle-on-line 30/80/90 1 mm Plastics Interdigitated 50/50 (Kapton)Electrodes 2AA, 2AB, 2AC, 2AD, 2BE and 2CF are interdigitated electrodesand have values 80/50, 80/15, 80/30, 50/10, 48/18 and 48/28 forelectrode width and gap width, respectively. Electrodes 3A, 3B and 3Care circle-on-stick (or circle on a line) electrodes having 30/80/90,30/80/90 and 60/160/180 for the stick (i.e. line) width and stick (i.e.line) gap, electrode circle diameter, respectively.}

Example 2 Quantitative Measurement of Cells Using the 3B Electrode

FIG. 27 illustrates quantitative measurement of cells using theelectrodes of 3B geometry. The apparatuses for experiments wereconstructed by gluing bottom less, conical or cylinder shaped plastictubes over glass substrates on which 3B electrodes were fabricated. Theplastic tubes had a diameter of about 5.5 mm on the end that was gluedonto the glass substrates. The glass substrates formed the bottom of thewells (or fluidic containers) and the plastic tubes form the wall of thewells (or fluidic containers). Serial diluted NIH 3T3 cells (10,000cells, 5,000 cells, 2,500 cells, 1,250 cells and 625 cells) were addedinto the apparatuses and onto the surface of the 3B electrodes that hadbeen coated with fibronectin. Resistance and reactance were measured at0 hour (immediately after seeding), and at 16 hours after seeding. Thecurves represent resistance and capacitive reactance data from a givenfrequency as indicated. Note that the polarity for the reactance at thefrequency of 792 kHz was negative (capacitive reactance) and themagnitudes of the reactance were shown. T_(o) curve indicates thebaseline resistance and capacitive reactance for the electrodes ontowhich cells had not been attached. T0-T16 curve indicates the resistanceand capacitive reactance changes after cell attached to the electrodes.The current 3B electrode is able to sense less than 600 cells. Thedynamic quantification range of the current 3B electrode is between10,000 and 500 for NIH 3T3 cells.

Example 3 Real Time Monitoring of NIH 3T3 and PAE Cell ProliferationUsing the 3C and 3B Electrodes

FIG. 28 illustrates real time monitoring of NIH 3T3 and porcine aorticendothelia (PAE) cell proliferation using the 3C and 3B electrodes. Theapparatuses for experiments were constructed using similar methods tothose described for FIG. 26 and FIG. 27. Two thousand five hundred NIH3T3 cells and 2,500 PAE cells were seeded onto the coated electrodes.For NIH 3T3 cells, the electrode was coated with fibronectin; for PAEcells, the electrode was coated with gelatin. Resistance and capacitivereactance were measured daily to monitor the cell proliferation. Notethat the polarity for the reactance at the frequency of 792 kHz wasnegative (capacitive reactance) and the magnitudes of the reactance wereshown. Day 0 indicates the measurement immediately after seeding of thecells. Here, the capacitive reactance value shown in the figure is theabsolute value. The resistance and capacitive reactance increase withthe cultivation time (days) in both cell types, indicating cellproliferation. The NIH 3T3 cell growth plateaued at day 4, while PAEcell growth plateaued at day 5, suggesting the NIH 3T3 cells proliferatefaster than PAE.

Example 4 Real-Time Monitoring of NIH 3T3 Cell Death Induced byUltraviolet (UV) Using the 3B Electrode

FIG. 29 illustrates real-time monitoring of NIH 3T3 cell death inducedby ultraviolet (UV) using the 3B electrode. The apparatuses forexperiments were constructed using similar methods to those describedfor FIG. 26 and FIG. 27. Ten thousand NIH 3T3 cells were seeded onto afibronectin-coated 3B electrode, and cultivated cells in 5% CO2incubator till fully confluent. For UV exposure, the media on the cellmonolayer was withdrawn and the cell layer was directly exposed to UVfor five minutes. After UV exposure, the original media were then addedback to the monolayer. Resistance and capacitive reactance were measuredimmediately, indicated as UVt0. The UV exposed electrode was thenincubated in 5% C02 incubator and the cell death induced by UV wasmonitored by measuring resistance and capacitive reactance at differenttime intervals as indicated. The figure showed the resistance declineafter UV exposure, indicating UV-induced cell death. The cell death canbe detected as early as 4 hours after UV exposure and cell death ratereached to 100% at 23 hours after UV exposure. The cell death measuredby resistance was correlated with cell morphology changes observed undera microscope (data not shown).

Example 5 IC₅₀s For Tamoxifen at Different Time Intervals

FIG. 30 illustrates IC₅₀s for tamoxifen at different time intervals.IC₅₀s for Tamoxifen at different time intervals were measured byreal-time monitoring of the cytotoxic effect of Tamoxifen on the NIH 3T3cells. The 3C electrodes were used for the experiment. The apparatusesfor experiments were constructed using similar methods to thosedescribed for FIG. 26 and FIG. 27. The electrodes were coated withfibronectin and seeded with 10,000 NIH 3T3 cells per electrode. Once thecells reached 100% confluence, a serially diluted Tamoxifen was added tothe cells as indicated. Resistance and reactance of the treatedcell-electrode interface were measured at different time intervals. Thepercentage of cell viability was calculated as following:% of cell viability=100*(R _(t0) −R _(tx))/(R _(t0) _(—) _(ctrl) −R_(tx) _(—) _(ctrl))where R_(t0) and R_(tx) is resistance of the resistance of a treatedelectrode at T0 and at a given time interval, and R_(t0) _(—) _(ctrl)and R_(tx) _(—) _(ctrl) is the resistance of the control electrode at T0and at the same time interval. Here the resistance used for thecalculation was the value measured for a particular frequency (31 kHz).As shown in the figure, the IC50s at the 21 hour interval (t21), the 32hour interval(t32) and the 43 hour interval (t43) are similar, whileIC50s at the 13 hour (t13) and the 67 hour (t67) intervals aresignificantly different. This strongly suggests that appropriatedtreatment time for a given chemical compound is crucial to determine anaccurate IC50. Monitoring of cytotoxic effect by real-time measuringresistance changes between the cell and the electrode showed the greatadvantages to obtain accurate IC50s.

Example 6 Resistance Comparison Among Four Different Cell Types Usingthe 3C Electrode

FIG. 31 illustrates resistance comparison among four different celltypes using the 3C electrode. Resistance for four cell types weremeasured using the 3C electrode. The apparatuses for experiments wereconstructed using similar methods to those described for FIG. 26 andFIG. 27. The four cell types were the NIH 3T3 cells (mouse fibroblasts),the HEP-G2 cells (human hepatocytes), the PAE cells (pig endotheliacells) and the HUVEC (human endothelia cells). For the NIH 3T3 and theHEP-G2, the electrode was coated with fibronectin; for the PAE andHUVEC, the electrode was coated with gelatin. Two electrodes were usedfor each cell type as indicated. For NIH 3T3 and HEP-G2, 10,000 cellswere seeded onto each electrode; for HUVEC and PAE, 20000 cells wereseeded onto each electrode. The resistance and capacitive reactance weremeasured (only resistance data were shown here ) at time 0 and 3 or 4hours after seeding. For HEP-G2, resistance was measured at 119 hoursafter seeding. Significant increases in resistance were seen in NIH 3T3cells, HUVEC and PAE cells at 3 or 4 hours. In contrast, subtle increasein resistance was seen in HEP-G2 at 4 hours after seeding, indicatingthe slow attachment of hepatocytes to the electrodes. The resistance forHEP-G2 increased steadily after overnight incubation (data not shown)and reached to plateau at 119 hour after seeding.

Example 7 Reproducibility of Resistance Measurement

FIG. 32 illustrates reproducibility of resistance measurement. Thereproducibility was tested on seven electrodes (3B) seeded with HUVEC.The apparatuses for experiments were constructed using similar methodsto those described for FIG. 26 and FIG. 27. The electrodes were coatedwith gelatin and seeded with 15,000 HUVEC cells per electrode. Theresistance for each electrode was measure immediately after seeding(t₀), and 20 hours and 30 minutes after seeding. Significant increase inresistance was seen after 20 hour incubation indicating the cellattachment onto electrode. The average resistance for t₀ is 47.4 withstandard deviation of 3.9; for t20h30m, the average resistance is 284.8with standard deviation of 17.2. The coefficient of variance for t₀ is8.3%, and for t20h30m is 6.1.

1. A device for detecting cells on an electrode surface throughmeasurement of impedance changes resulting from attachment of said cellsto said electrode surface, which device comprises: a non-conductivesubstrate; a plurality of electrode arrays positioned on said substrate,wherein each electrode array comprises at least two electrode structurespositioned on the same plane and having substantially the same surfacearea, and further wherein each electrode structure comprises at leasttwo electrode elements and the electrode element width is between 1.5and 15 times the width of the electrode gap between electrode elementsof different electrode structures within said each electrode array,further wherein the electrode gap is at least 3 microns wide; aplurality of connection pads located on said substrate, wherein eachconnection pad is in electrical communication with at least one of saidelectrode structures; and wherein said device has a surface suitable forcell attachment or growth and said cell attachment or growth results incellular contact with at least one of said electrode structures furtherresulting in a detectable change in AC electrical impedance between oramong said electrode structures.
 2. The device according to claim 1,wherein the substrate comprises glass, sapphire, silicon dioxide onsilicon, or a polymer.
 3. The device according to claim 2, wherein thesubstrate is configured as a flat surface.
 4. The device according toclaim 3, further comprising a plurality of receptacles, wherein eachreceptacle is disposed on the nonconductive substrate in a perpendicularorientation thereto, further wherein each receptacle forms a fluid tightcontainer and least one container is associated with an electrode arrayon the substrate.
 5. The device according to claim 1, wherein theelectrode elements of each electrode structure are of equal widths. 6.The device according to claim 1 for detecting cells on an electrodesurface through measurement of impedance changes resulting fromattachment of said cells to said electrode surface, wherein electrodeelements'widths are between about 0.5 times and about 10 times the sizeof cells used.
 7. The device according to claim 1, wherein electrodeelements'widths are in the range between 20 micron and 500 micron. 8.The device according to claim 1, wherein the at least two electrodeelements comprise a plurality of electrode elements, further wherein theplurality of electrode elements of different electrode structures areevenly spaced.
 9. The device according to claim 1, wherein each array ofelectrodes is organized in an interdigitated fashion.
 10. The deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein each array of electrodes is organized sothat electrode elements have a geometry selected from the groupconsisting of circle-on-line, diamond-on-line, concentric, sinusoidal,interdigitated or castellated fashion.
 11. The device according to claim8, further wherein at least one bus is associated with up to half of theplurality of electrode elements in the at least two electrode structuresof each electrode array.
 12. The device according to claim 11, whereinthe bus comprises an electrode which extends around up to half theperimeter of the electrode array.
 13. The device according to claim 11,further comprising a plurality of receptacles, wherein each receptacleis disposed on the nonconductive substrate in a perpendicularorientation thereto, further wherein each receptacle forms a fluid-tightcontainer and each electrode array on the substrate is associated with afluid-tight container.
 14. The device according to claim 13, whereineach container is shaped as a tube with opposing open ends, one end ofwhich being in fluid-tight contact with the substrate.
 15. The deviceaccording to claim 14, further wherein the diameter of the container atthe end in contact with the substrate is smaller than the diameter ofthe opposing end.
 16. The device according to claim 13, wherein thecontainers are arranged on the substrate in honeycomb fashion.
 17. Thedevice according to claim 16, wherein the outer wall of each containerat its point of contact with the substrate is up to about 2.5 mm fromthe outer wall of each adjacent container.
 18. The device according toclaim 16, wherein the electrode elements of each electrode array are ofequal widths.
 19. The device according to claim 18 for detecting cellson an electrode surface through measurement of impedance changesresulting from attachment of said cells to said electrode surface,wherein electrode elements'widths are between about 0.5 times and about10 times the size of cells used.
 20. The device according to claim 18for detecting cells on an electrode surface through measurement ofimpedance changes resulting from attachment of said cells to saidelectrode surface, wherein electrode elements'widths are in the rangebetween 20 micron and 500 micron.
 21. The device according to claim 18for detecting cells on an electrode surface through measurement ofimpedance changes resulting from attachment of said cells to saidelectrode surface, wherein the gap between electrode elements of theelectrode structures ranges from 0.2 time and 3 times the width of anaveraged cell used.
 22. The device according to claim 1, furthercomprising an impedance analyzer electrically connected to all or aplurality of the electrical connection pads.
 23. The device according toclaim 22, wherein the impedance is measured at a frequency ranging fromabout 1 Hz to about 1 MHz.
 24. The device according to claim 16, whereinthe containers together form a multi-well bottomless microtiter plate.25. The device according to claim 24, wherein the number of wellspresent in the bottomless microtiter plate is a number between 6 and1,536.
 26. The device according to claim 16, wherein less than all ofthe containers are associated with at least one of said plurality ofelectrode arrays.
 27. The device according to claim 25, wherein lessthan all of the containers are associated with at least one of saidplurality of electrode arrays.
 28. The device according to claim 16,wherein the diameter of one or more containers is, at the container enddisposed on the substrate, between about 3 and 7 mm.
 29. The deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein the electrodes are fabricated on thesubstrate by a laser ablation process.
 30. The device according to claim1, wherein the electrode arrays are individually addressed.
 31. Thedevice according to claim 1, further comprising: one or more capturereagents immobilized on the surfaces of the at least two electrodestructures in each electrode array, wherein the capture reagents arecapable of binding target cells.
 32. The device according to claim 1,further comprising: an impedance analyzer and connection means forestablishing electrical communication between the connection pads andthe impedance analyzer.
 33. The device according to claim 32, whereinthe connection means comprises a mechanical clip adapted to securelyengage the substrate and to form electrical contact with a trace. 34.The device according to claim 33, wherein the mechanical clip is adaptedto form an electrical connection with a printed-circuit board (PCB). 35.The device according to claim 1, wherein the target cells are attachedon an electrode surface.
 36. The device according to claim 4, wherein aperimeter of the container is contained within the outer perimeter ofthe electrode arrays.
 37. The device according to claim 11, furthercomprising a plurality of receptacles, wherein each receptacle isdisposed on the substrate in a perpendicular orientation thereto,further wherein each receptacle forms a fluid-tight container, and atleast one receptacle is contained within a perimeter formed by the busesat a plane of contact between the receptacles and the substrate.
 38. Thedevice according to claim 37, wherein each container is shaped as a tubewith opposing open ends, one end of which being in fluid-tight contactwith the substrate.
 39. The device according to claim 38, wherein thediameter of the container at the end in contact with the substrate issmaller than the diameter of the opposing end.
 40. The device accordingto claim 37, wherein the containers are arranged on the substrate inhoneycomb fashion.
 41. The device according to claim 1 for detectingcells on an electrode surface through measurement of impedance changesresulting from attachment of said cells to said electrode surface,wherein the gap between electrode elements of electrode structuresranges from 0.2 time and 3 times the width of an averaged cell used. 42.The device according to claim 1 for detecting cells on an electrodesurface through measurement of impedance changes resulting fromattachment of said cells to said electrode surface, wherein the gapbetween electrode elements of the electrode structures is between about3 microns and 80 microns.
 43. The device according to claim 18 fordetecting cells on an electrode surface through measurement of impedancechanges resulting from attachment of said cells to said electrodesurface, wherein the gap between electrode elements of the electrodestructures is between about 3 microns and 80 microns.
 44. The deviceaccording to claim 5, wherein the electrode elements'widths are betweenabout 0.5 times and about 10 times the size of cells used.
 45. Thedevice according to claim 5, wherein the electrode elements'widths arein the range between 20 micron and 500 micron.
 46. The device accordingto claim 5, wherein the gap between electrode elements of differentelectrode structures ranges from 0.2 time and 3 times the width of anaverage cell used.
 47. The device according to claim 5, wherein the gapbetween electrode elements of different electrode structures is betweenabout 3 microns and 80 microns.
 48. The device according to claim 1,wherein the electrode structures comprise one or more materials selectedfrom the group consisting of indium tin oxide (ITO), chromium, gold,copper, nickel, platinum, silver, titanium, steel, and aluminum.
 49. Thedevice according to claim 1, wherein the electrode structures areoptically transparent.
 50. The device according to claim 1, wherein thesurface of the electrode structures are modified with a cell-adhesionpromotion moiety.
 51. The device according to claim 50, wherein thecell-adhesion promotion moiety is selected from the group consisting ofa self-assembly-monomolecular (SAM) layer, one or more extracellularmatrix components, a protein, a polymer layer and a charged group.
 52. Amethod for assaying target cells in a sample, which method comprises: a)contacting one or more electrode arrays of the device of claim 1 to asample containing or suspected of containing target cells; and, b)determining whether a change in impedance occurs between or amongelectrode structures in one or more said electrode arrays; wherein adetectable change of impedance is indicative of the presence of targetcells in said sample, and attachment of said cells on the surface ofsaid one or more electrode arrays.
 53. The method according to claim 52,wherein the sample is a biological sample comprising culture mediasufficient for target cell growth.
 54. A method for monitoring cellattachment or growth, which method comprises: a) providing the device ofclaim 13; b) attaching cells to or growing cells on the surface suitablefor attachment or growth; and c) monitoring a change of impedancebetween or among the electrode structures to monitor said cellattachment or growth.
 55. The method according to claim 54, furthercomprising determining the amount or number of cells that are attachedto or grown on the device from the monitored impedance.
 56. The methodaccording to claim 54, further comprising deriving a cell number indexfrom the monitored impedance.
 57. The method according to claim 56,wherein the cell number index is derived from a process selected fromthe group consisting of process 1, process 2, process 3 and process 4,wherein process 1 comprises: a) at each measured frequency, calculatinga resistance ratio by dividing a measured resistance when cells areattached to the electrode structure by a baseline resistance; b)determining the maximum value in the resistance ratio over a frequencyspectrum; and c) subtracting one from the maximum value in theresistance ratio, wherein a zero or near zero cell number indexindicates that no cells or a very small number of cells are present onor attached to the electrode structures and an increased value of cellnumber index indicates that, for the same type of cells and cells undersimilar physiological conditions, an increased number of cells areattached to the electrode structures; wherein process 2 comprises: a) ateach measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio by dividing ameasured resistance when cells are attached to the electrode structuresby the baseline resistance; b) determining the maximum value in theresistance ratio over a frequency spectrum; and c) calculating alog-value of the maximum value in the resistance ratio; wherein, a zeroor near-zero cell number index indicates that no cells or a very smallnumber of cells are present on or attached to the electrode structuresand an increased value of cell number index indicates that, for sametype of the cells and cells under similar physiological conditions, anincreased number of cells are attached to the electrode structures;wherein process 3 comprises: a) at each measured frequency, calculatingthe reactance ratio by dividing the measured reactance when cells areattached to the electrode structures by the baseline reactance; b)determining the maximum value in the reactance ratio over a frequencyspectrum; and c) subtracting one from the maximum value in theresistance ratio, wherein a zero or near-zero cell number indexindicates that no cells or a very small number of cells are present onor attached to the electrode structures and an increased value of cellnumber index indicates that, for same type of the cells and cells undersimilar physiological conditions, an increased number of cells areattached to the electrode structures; and wherein process 4 comprises:a) at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance ratio bydividing the measured resistance when cells are attached to theelectrode structures by the baseline resistance; b) calculating therelative change in resistance in each measured frequency by subtractingone from the resistance ratio; and c) integrating all therelative-change values; wherein the cell-number index is derived basedon multiple-frequency points, and further wherein a zero or near-zerocell number index indicates that no cells or a very small number ofcells are present on the electrodes and an increased value of cellnumber index indicates that, for same type of the cells and cells undersimilar physiological conditions, an increased number of cells areattached to the electrode structures.
 58. The method according to claim54, wherein the cell attachment or growth is monitored on a real timebasis.
 59. The method according to claim 54, wherein the cell attachmentor growth is monitored in the presence and absence of a test compoundand the method is used to determine whether said test compound modulatesattachment or growth of the cells.
 60. The method according to claim 54,wherein the cell attachment or growth is stimulated by a growth factorand the method is used to screen the test compound for a growth factorantagonist.
 61. A method for monitoring effect of a test compound oncell attachment or growth, which method comprises: a) providing a deviceof claim 13; b) attaching cells to or growing cells in a plurality ofcontainers of said device wherein each of said plurality of containersis associated with at least two electrode structures and containssubstantially the same number and same type of cells and a differentconcentration of a test compound; and c) monitoring a change ofimpedance between or among the electrode structures as a function oftime to monitor the effect of said test compound on cell attachment orgrowth.
 62. The method according to claim 61, further comprisingdetermining whether the test compound is an antagonist to the growth ofthe cells.
 63. The method according to claim 61, further comprisingdetermining the dose response of test compound.
 64. A method forelectrporating adherent cells, which method comprises: a) providing adevice of claim 13 comprising a plurality of containers, at least one ofsaid containers comprising at least two electrode structures; b)attaching or growing cells in said at least one of said containers; andc) applying electrical voltage pulses to said electrode-structures toelectroporate the membrane of said cells adhered to the bottom surfaceof said electrode structures of said at least one of said containers.